Myanma tarixi - History of Myanmar

Myanma tarixi
Myanma tarixi Miloddan avvalgi 11000-200 Pyu shahar-shtatlari Miloddan avvalgi 200 yil - milodiy 1050 yil (Shri Ksetra qirolligi, Tagaung qirolligi ) Mon shohliklari 825?–1057 Arakan shohliklari 788?–1406
Butparastlik Shohligi 849–1297 Dastlabki butparastlik Shohligi 849–1044 Urushayotgan davlatlar davri Yuqori Birma 1297–1555 Myinsaing va Pinya qirolliklari 1297–1364 Sagaing Kingdom 1315–1364 Ava qirolligi 1364–1555 Prome Kingdom 1482–1542 Xantavaddi Qirolligi 1287–1539, 1550–1552 Shan shtatlari 1215–1563 Mrauk U qirolligi 1429–1785 Toungoo sulolasi 1510–1752 Birinchi Toungoo imperiyasi 1510–1599 Nyaunyanni tiklash 1599–1752 Xantavaddi qayta tiklandi 1740–1757 Konbaung sulolasi 1752–1885
Britaniya mustamlakasi davri 1824–1948 Angliya-Birma urushlari 1824–1885 Qarshilik harakati 1885–1895 Millatchilik harakati 1900–1948 Yapon istilosi 1942–1945
Zamonaviy davr 1948 yil - hozirgi kunga qadar Birma ittifoqi 1948–1962 Sotsialistik respublika 1962–1988 Myanma ittifoqi 1988–2010 Siyosiy islohotlar 2011–2015
Xronologiya Poytaxtlar ro'yxati Rahbarlar Qirollik yilnomalari Harbiy tarix

Qismi bir qator ustida
Myanma madaniyati
Tarix Myanma tarixi
Odamlar
Tillar Birma tili Mon tili
An'analar Anade Kiyim Qarindoshlik Ismlar Tatuirovka To'ylar Zodiak
Mifologiya va folklor Folklor
Oshxona Oshxona Satuditha
Bayramlar Birma taqvimi Davlat bayramlari An'anaviy festivallar Pagoda festivali
Din Birma xalq dini Buddizm Birma pagoda Kyaung Nasroniylik Hinduizm
San'at Arxitektura Seramika Zamonaviy san'at Kalaga Shisha mozaika
Adabiyot Adabiyot
Musiqa va ijro san'ati Musiqa Mahagita Raqs Yeyn Anyeint Yoke
OAV Televizor Kino
Sport Naban Thaing Chinlon Letvey Banshay Bando
Yodgorliklar Jahon merosi ob'ektlari
Belgilar Bayroq Gerb
Tashkilotlar Milliy muzey (Naypyidaw) Milliy muzey (Yangon) Myanma milliy kutubxonasi Yangon milliy teatri

Tarixi Myanma (shuningdek, Birma nomi bilan ham tanilgan; Birma: မြန်မာ့သမိုင်း) 13000 yil avval odamzotning birinchi ma'lum bo'lgan vaqtidan to hozirgi kungacha bo'lgan davrni o'z ichiga oladi. Ning eng qadimgi aholisi yozib olingan tarix edi a Tibet-burman tilida so'zlashuvchi tashkil etgan odamlar Pyu shahar-shtatlari janubga qadar bo'lgan Pyay va qabul qilingan Theravada buddizm.

9-asrning o'rtalarida pyu shaharlar qirollikka birlashtirilib, sifatida tashkil etilgan Butparastlik Shohligi (847–1297), Birma qirolligining birinchi marta birlashishi. The Pyu tili va Pyu madaniyati asta-sekin o'zgarib bordi va bu davrda birma tili va madaniyati sifatida tanildi. Keyin Mo'g'ullarning Birmaga birinchi bosqini 1287 yilda bir nechta kichik shohliklar, ulardan Ava qirolligi, Xantavaddi Qirolligi, Mrauk U qirolligi va Shan shtatlari asosiy kuchlar bo'lib, doimiy o'zgaruvchan ittifoqlar va doimiy urushlar bilan to'ldirilib, landshaftda hukmronlik qildilar.

XVI asrning ikkinchi yarmida Taungoo sulolasi (1510–1752) mamlakatni birlashtirdi va qisqa muddat davomida Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo tarixidagi eng yirik imperiyaga asos soldi. Keyinchalik Taungoo shohlari 17 va 18 asr boshlarida kichikroq, tinchroq va farovon qirollikni vujudga keltirgan bir qancha muhim ma'muriy va iqtisodiy islohotlarni o'tkazdilar. 18-asrning ikkinchi yarmida Konbaung sulolasi (1752–1885) qirollikni tikladi va Taungu islohotlarini davom ettirib, periferik mintaqalarda markaziy boshqaruvni kuchaytirdi va Osiyodagi eng savodli davlatlardan birini yaratdi. Sulola ham barcha qo'shnilari bilan urushga kirishdi. The Angliya-Birma urushlari (1824–85) oxir-oqibat Angliya mustamlakasi hukmronligiga olib keldi.

Britaniya hukmronligi bir vaqtlar agrar bo'lgan jamiyatni butunlay o'zgartirib yuborgan bir qancha doimiy ijtimoiy, iqtisodiy, madaniy va ma'muriy o'zgarishlarni keltirib chiqardi. Britaniyaliklar hukmronligi mamlakatdagi son-sanoqsiz etnik guruhlar o'rtasidagi guruhlar o'rtasidagi farqlarni ta'kidladilar. 1948 yilda mustaqillikka erishganidan beri mamlakat eng uzoq davom etgan fuqarolik urushlaridan biri siyosiy va etnik ozchilik guruhlari va ketma-ket markaziy hukumatlar vakili bo'lgan qo'zg'olonchilar guruhlarini jalb qilish. Mamlakat 1962 yildan 2010 yilgacha turli xil niqoblar ostida harbiy boshqaruv ostida bo'lgan va bu jarayonda dunyodagi eng kam rivojlangan davlatlardan biriga aylangan.

Dastlabki tarix (9-asrga qadar)

Tarix

Dastlabki arxeologik dalillar shuni ko'rsatadiki, Birmada eramizdan avvalgi 11000 yilda madaniyatlar mavjud bo'lgan. Erta yashashning aksariyat ko'rsatkichlari markaziy quruq zonada topilgan, bu erda tarqoq joylar Irrawaddi daryosiga yaqin joyda paydo bo'ladi. The Anyatiyalik, Birmaning tosh asri Evropada quyi va o'rta paleolit ​​bilan parallel deb o'ylangan davrda mavjud bo'lgan. Neolit ​​yoki yangi tosh davri, o'simliklar va hayvonlar birinchi marta uy sharoitiga keltirilib, sayqallangan tosh qurollar paydo bo'lganligi, Birmada Shan platosining chetidagi Taunggyi yaqinida joylashgan miloddan avvalgi 10000-6000 yillarga oid uchta g'or tomonidan tasdiqlangan.^[1]

Miloddan avvalgi 1500 yilga yaqin mintaqada yashovchilar misni bronzaga aylantirib, guruch o'stirib, tovuq va cho'chqalarni boqishmoqda; ular dunyoda birinchilardan bo'lib buni qildilar. Miloddan avvalgi 500 yilga kelib, temirdan ishlangan aholi punktlari hozirgi zamonning janubida paydo bo'ldi Mandalay. Bronza bilan bezatilgan tobutlar va sopol idishlar qoldiqlari bilan to'ldirilgan ko'milgan joylar qazilgan.^[2] Mandalaydan janubdagi Samon vodiysidagi arxeologik dalillarga ko'ra, miloddan avvalgi 500 yildan va miloddan avvalgi 200 yilgacha Xitoy bilan savdo qilgan guruch etishtiriladigan aholi punktlari mavjud.^[3] Temir davrida, Samon vodiysidan tashqarida bo'lgan arxeologik dalillarga ko'ra, Hindiston katta ta'sir ko'rsatgan chaqaloqlarni ko'mish amaliyotidagi o'zgarishlar aniqlandi. Ushbu o'zgarishlarga go'daklarni bankalarda ko'mish kiradi, ularning kattaligi ularning oilaviy holatini aks ettiradi.^[4]

Pyu shahar-shtatlari

Pyu Irravaddi vodiysiga hozirgi Yunnan, v. Miloddan avvalgi 2-asr va Irravaddi vodiysida shahar-davlatlarni barpo etishga davom etdi. Pyu-ning asl uyi qayta tiklangan Tsinxay ko'li hozirgi kunda Tsinxay va Gansu.^[5] Pyu yozuvlari saqlanib qolgan Birmaning eng qadimgi aholisi bo'lgan.^[6] Ushbu davrda Birma Xitoydan Hindistonga quruqlikdagi savdo yo'lining bir qismi bo'lgan. Hindiston bilan savdo buddizmni olib keldi Janubiy Hindiston. IV asrga kelib, Irravaddi vodiysida ko'pchilik buddizmni qabul qildi.^[7] Ko'plab shahar-davlatlarning eng katta va eng muhimi bu edi Shri Ksetra qirolligi zamonaviy Pyaydan janubi-sharqda, shuningdek, bir paytlar poytaxt deb o'ylagan.^[8] 638 yil mart oyida Shri Ksetra Pyu yangi kalendarni chiqardi, keyinchalik u bo'ldi Birma taqvimi.^[6]

Sakkizinchi asrdagi Xitoy yozuvlari Irravaddi vodiysidagi 18 ta Pyu shtatini aniqlaydi va Pyu odam o'ldirmasliklari uchun urush deyarli noma'lum bo'lgan va aslida ipak o'rniga ipak paxtani kiyib yuradigan insonparvar va tinch odamlar sifatida tavsiflanadi. ipak qurtlari. Xitoy yozuvlarida, shuningdek, Pyu astronomik hisob-kitoblarni qilishni bilganligi va ko'plab Pyu o'g'illari monastir hayotiga etti yoshdan 20 yoshgacha bo'lganligi haqida xabar berilgan.^[6]

Bu uzoq davom etgan tsivilizatsiya bo'lib, IX asrning boshlariga qadar shimoldan yangi "tezkor otliqlar" guruhi Bamar yuqori Irrawaddi vodiysiga kirib kelguniga qadar ming yillik davom etgan. 9-asrning boshlarida Yuqori Birmaning Pyu shahar-davlatlari tomonidan doimiy hujumlar boshlandi Nanzhao (zamonaviy Yunnan ). 832 yilda Nanzhao ishdan bo'shatdi Halingyi, o'zib ketgan Prome bosh Pyu shahar-davlat va norasmiy poytaxti sifatida. Arxeologlar 832 yilda Xalingyi talon-taroj qilinganligi haqidagi xitoy tilidagi dastlabki matnlarni talqin qilib, 3000 nafar Pyu mahbusining asirga olinishini batafsil bayon qilib, keyinchalik Nanzhao qullariga aylanishgan. Kunming.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Pyu aholi punktlari Yuqori Birmada XI asr o'rtalarida Pagan imperiyasi paydo bo'lguncha qolgan bo'lsa, Pyu keyingi to'rt asrda asta-sekin kengayib borayotgan Pagan butparastligi Burman shohligiga singib ketdi. The Pyu tili hali 12-asr oxirigacha mavjud edi. XIII asrga kelib, pyu-bamar millatini qabul qildi. Pyu tarixlari / afsonalari Bamarlarning tarixiga ham qo'shilgan.^[7]

Mon shohliklari

Mustamlakachilik davridagi stipendiyalarga ko'ra, VI asrdayoq boshqa bir xalq Dushanba Mon podshohliklaridan hozirgi Quyi Birmaga kira boshladi Xaribxunjaya va Dvaravati bugungi kunda Tailand. 9-asrning o'rtalariga kelib, Mon atrofida kamida ikkita kichik shohliklarni (yoki yirik shahar-davlatlarni) tashkil qildi Bago va O'sha. Quyi Birmadagi Mon podshohligi to'g'risida dastlabki tashqi ma'lumot 844–848 yillarda arab geograflari tomonidan qilingan.^[9] Ammo yaqinda olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, mustamlakachilik davridagi taxminlarni qo'llab-quvvatlovchi dalillar yo'q (arxeologik yoki boshqa) Quyi Birmada XIII asrning oxirigacha mononzabon siyosat mavjud bo'lgan va Teton shohligi mavjud bo'lgan degan birinchi yozilgan da'vo faqat 1479 yilda kelib chiqqan. .^[10]

Butparastlar sulolasi (849–1297)

Ilk butparast

Milodiy 1044 yilda Anavraxtaga qo'shilish paytida butparastning knyazligi.

Anawrahta ning asoschisi bo'lgan Butparastlik Shohligi.

Pagodalar va kyaunglar hozirgi kunda Bagan, butparastlar qirolligining poytaxti.

Pyu davlatlarining dastlabki 9-nanzjao bosqini bilan kelgan burmanlar yuqori Birmada qoldi. (Irmaniy vodiysining yuqori qismiga Burman ko'chib o'tishlari 7-asrda boshlanishi mumkin edi).^[11]9-asrning o'rtalaridan oxirigacha butparast Irravaddi va uning asosiy irmog'i - quyilish joyi yaqinidagi Irravaddi ustidagi strategik joy bo'ylab mustahkam turar-joy sifatida tashkil etilgan. Chindvin daryosi.^[12]

Bu Nanzhao atrofidagi qishloq joylarini tinchlantirishga yordam berish uchun mo'ljallangan bo'lishi mumkin.^[13] Keyingi ikki yuz yil ichida kichik knyazlik asta-sekin o'z atrofini qamrab oldi - shimoldan janubga qariyb 200 mil va sharqdan g'arbga 80 milya. Anawrahta 1044 yilda qo'shilish.^[14]

Butparastlik imperiyasi (1044–1297)

Davomida butparastlar Shohligi Narapatisithu hukmronligi. Birma xronikalari, shuningdek, Kengtung va Chiang Mayni da'vo qilishadi. To'q sariq rangda ko'rsatilgan asosiy joylar. Periferik joylar och sariq rangda. Butparast XIII asrga kelib Quyi Birmaning asosiy portlarini o'zining asosiy boshqaruviga kiritdi.

Keyingi 30 yil ichida Anawrahta birinchi marta keyinchalik zamonaviy Birmani tashkil etadigan mintaqalarni birlashtirgan butparastlar Shohligiga asos solgan. Anawraxtaning vorislari XII asr oxiriga kelib o'z ta'sirini janubdan yuqori qismga qadar kengaytirdilar Malay yarim oroli, hech bo'lmaganda Salvin daryosi sharqda, shimolroqda, hozirgi Xitoy chegarasidan pastda va g'arbda, shimolda Arakan va Chin-Xillz.^[15] Birma xronikalari butparastning suzerinitetini butun da'vo qilmoqda Chao-Phraya vodiysi va Tailand xronikalari Malay yarim orolining pastki qismiga qadar o'z ichiga oladi Malakka bo'g'ozi butparastning shohligiga.^[13][16]

12-asrning boshlariga kelib, butparast Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoda Khmer imperiyasi bilan bir qatorda yirik davlat sifatida paydo bo'ldi. Song China va Chola sulolasi Hindiston. XIII asrning o'rtalariga kelib, Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyodagi materikning katta qismi Pagan imperiyasi yoki Kxmerlar imperiyasi tomonidan ma'lum darajada nazorat ostida bo'lgan.^[17]

Anawrahta, shuningdek, Birma tarixida doimiy ta'sir ko'rsatadigan bir qator muhim ijtimoiy, diniy va iqtisodiy islohotlarni amalga oshirdi. Keyinchalik uning ijtimoiy va diniy islohotlari hozirgi zamonga aylandi Birma madaniyati. Eng muhim voqea, Pravitonni bosib olganidan keyin Theravada Buddizmning Yuqori Birma tarkibiga kirishi edi Thaton Kingdom 1057 yilda. Qirollik homiyligida qo'llab-quvvatlangan buddaviylik maktabi keyingi uch asrda asta-sekin qishloq darajasiga tarqaldi. Vajrayana buddisti, Mahayana, Hindu va animizm barcha ijtimoiy qatlamlarga qattiq singib ketgan.^[18]

Butparastlarning iqtisodiyoti, asosan, Kyaukse qishloq xo'jaligi havzasi poytaxtning shimoli-sharqida va Minbu, Bagan janubida, Bamarlarda ko'plab yangi vodiylar va burilish kanallari qurilgan. Shuningdek, u o'z sohilidagi portlari orqali tashqi savdodan foyda ko'rdi. Shohlikning boyligi XI-XIII asrlar oralig'ida butparastlarning poytaxt zonasida 10000 dan ortiq budda ibodatxonalarini qurishga sarflangan (shulardan 3000 tasi hozirgi kungacha saqlanib qolgan). Boylar soliqsiz erlarni diniy idoralarga berishdi.

The Birma tili va madaniyat asta-sekin yuqori Irravaddi vodiysida hukmron bo'lib, Pyu va ni tutib oldi Pali 12-asr oxiriga kelib normalar. O'sha paytga kelib qirollikning Bamar rahbariyati shubhasiz edi. Pyu yuqori Birmada asosan Bamar etnik guruhini qabul qilgan. Birma tili, bir paytlar begona til edi, endi qirollikning lingua franki edi.

13-asrda qirollik tanazzulga yuz tutdi, chunki soliqsiz diniy boylikning doimiy o'sishi - 1280-yillarga kelib, Yuqori Birmaning ekiladigan erlarining uchdan ikki qismi dinga begonalashgan - bu tojning saroy ahli sadoqatini saqlab qolish qobiliyatiga ta'sir ko'rsatdi. harbiy xizmatchilar. Bu monslar, mo'g'ullar va boshqa davlatlarning ichki tartibsizliklari va tashqi muammolarini boshidan kechirdi Shans.^[19]

XIII asrning boshlaridan boshlab Shan, butparastlar imperiyasini shimol va sharqdan o'rab olishni boshladi. The Mo'g'ullar 1253 yilda Bamarning sobiq vatani Yunnanni zabt etgan, elchilik inqiroziga javoban 1277 yilda o'z bosqinlarini boshladi va 1287 yilda butparastni ishdan bo'shatdi va bu butparast podshohlikning 250 yillik Irravaddi vodiysi va uning atrofidagi hukmronligini tugatdi. o'sha paytdagi butparast podshoh mo'g'ullar yurishi haqidagi xabar bilan o'z saroyini tark etdi. Piri butparastligi Birmaning markaziy hukmronligi o'n yil o'tib, 1297 yilda tugatilib, hukmronlik tomonidan ag'darib tashlandi Myinsaing Kingdom Shan hukmdorlarining.

Kichik shohliklar

Birmaning siyosiy xaritasi (Myanma) v. Milodiy 1450 yil.

Butparastlik qulaganidan so'ng, mo'g'ullar dahshatli Irravaddi vodiysini tark etishdi, ammo butparastlar shohligi tuzatib bo'lmaydigan tarzda bir necha kichik shohliklarga bo'linib ketishdi. 14-asrning o'rtalariga kelib, mamlakat to'rtta yirik energiya markazlari bo'ylab tashkil etildi: Yuqori Birma, Quyi Birma, Shan shtatlari va Arakan. Ko'pgina kuch markazlari o'zlari kichik shohliklardan yoki knyazlik davlatlaridan tashkil topgan (ko'pincha erkin). Bu davr bir qator urushlar va o'zgaruvchan ittifoqlar bilan ajralib turardi. Kichik qirolliklar, ba'zan bir vaqtning o'zida, kuchliroq davlatlarga sodiq qolish uchun xavfli o'yinni o'ynashdi.

Ava (1364–1555)

1364 yilda tashkil etilgan, Ava qirolligi (Inwa) Birmaning markazida joylashgan avvalgi, hatto kichikroq qirolliklarning vorisi bo'lgan davlat edi: Taungoo (1287–1318), Myinsaing –Pinya qirolligi (1297-1364) va Sagaing Kingdom (1315-64). O'zini Butparastlik Shohligining qonuniy vorisi deb bilgan Ava o'zining mavjudligining dastlabki yillarida sobiq imperiyani qayta yig'ishga harakat qildi. Taungoo tomonidan boshqariladigan podsholik va periferik Shan davlatlarini tortib olishga muvaffaq bo'lganda (Kalay, Mohnyin, Mogaung, Hsipaw ) qudratining eng yuqori cho'qqisida o'z katlamiga, qolganlarini qayta tiklay olmadi.

The Qirq yillik urush (1385–1424) Xantavaddi bilan Avani charchatdi va uning kuch-qudrati ko'tarildi. Uning shohlari o'zlarining vassal hududlarida muntazam ravishda qo'zg'olonlarga duch kelishgan, ammo ularni 1480 yillarga qadar bostira olishgan. XV asr oxirida Prome Kingdom va uning Shan shtatlari muvaffaqiyatli ravishda ajralib chiqdi va XVI asr boshlarida Avaning o'zi o'zining sobiq vassallari hujumiga uchradi. 1510 yilda Taungoo ham ajralib chiqdi. 1527 yilda Shan davlatlari konfederatsiyasi Mohnyin boshchiligida Avani qo'lga oldi. Konfederatsiyaning Yuqori Birma hukmronligi, 1555 yilgacha davom etgan bo'lsa-da, Mohnyin va Thibaw uylari o'rtasida ichki kurash olib borildi. 1555 yilda Taungoo kuchlari tomonidan qirollik ag'darilgan.

Birma tili va madaniyati butparastlar qirolligining so'nggi davri (eski Birma XII ° asrda boshlanadi) va Ava davri o'rtasida o'z-o'zidan paydo bo'ldi.

Xantavaddi Pegu (1287–1539, 1550–52)

The Dushanba - gapirish shohligi sifatida tashkil etilgan Ramannadesa 1297 yilda butparast qulaganidan so'ng. Dastlab Quyi Birmada joylashgan qirollik mintaqaviy kuch markazlarining erkin federatsiyasi edi. Mottama, Bago va Irravaddi deltasi. Ning baquvvat hukmronligi Razadarit (1384–1421) qirollikning mavjudligini mustahkamladi. Razadarit uchta Monzabon mintaqani birlashtirdi va Qirq yillik urushda (1385–1424) Avani muvaffaqiyatli ushlab oldi.

Urushdan keyin Xantavaddi o'zining oltin davriga kirdi, raqibi Ava esa asta-sekin tanazzulga yuz tutdi. 1420-yillardan 1530-yillarga qadar Xantavaddi butparastlardan keyingi barcha podshohliklarning eng qudratli va obod qirolligi edi. Ayniqsa, iste'dodli monarxlar qatorida qirollik uzoq tijorat davridan chet el tijoratidan foyda ko'rgan. Mon tili va madaniyati rivojlangan shohlik tijorat va Theravada buddizm markaziga aylandi.

So'nggi hukmdorining tajribasizligi tufayli qudratli shohlik 1539 yilda boshlangan Taungoo sulolasi tomonidan zabt etildi. Qirollik 1550 yildan 1552 yilgacha qisqa vaqt ichida tiklandi. U faqat Peguni samarali boshqargan va 1552 yilda Taungoo tomonidan tor-mor qilingan.

Shan shtatlari (1287–1563)

The Shans, etnik Tai xalqlari Mo'g'ullar bilan birga kelganlar, tezda qolishdi va tezda Birmaning shimoldan sharqiy yoyigacha, shimoliy g'arbiy Sagaing bo'linmasidan Kachin tepaliklarigacha hozirgi Shan tepaliklariga qadar hukmronlik qildilar.

Eng qudratli Shan davlatlari bo'lgan Mohnyin va Mogaung hozirgi kunda Kachin shtati, dan so'ng Xsenvi (Teynni) (1988 yilda shimoliy va janubiy shtatda bo'lingan), THsipaw (Thibaw) va Momeik hozirgi shimoliy Shan davlatida.^[20]

Kichik davlatlarga Kalay, Bhamo (Wanmaw yoki Manmaw), Hkamti Long (Kantigyi), Xopong (Xopon), Hsahtung (Thaton), Hsamönghkam (Thamaingkan), Hsawnghsup (Thaungdut), Hsihkip (Thigyit), Hsumhsai (Hsum Hsai), Kehsi Mangam (Kyithi Bansan), Kengcheng (Kyaingchaing), Kengxkam (Kyaingong), , Kengtung (Kyaington), Kokang (Xo Kan), Kyawkku Xiwan (Kyaukku), Kyong (Kyon), Layxka (Legya), Lawksavk (Yatsauk), Loi-ai (Lwe-e), Loilong (Lvelong), Loimav (Lvemav), Nyaung Shve va boshqa ko'plab narsalar.

Mohnyin, xususan, XVI asr boshlarida Ava hududiga doimiy ravishda bostirib kirgan. Monxin boshchiligidagi Shan davlatlari Konfederatsiyasi Prome Kingdom, 1527 yilda Avaning o'zini qo'lga kiritdi. Konfederatsiya 1532 yilda o'zining sobiq ittifoqchisi Promeni mag'lubiyatga uchratdi va Taungodan tashqari Yuqori Birmani boshqargan. Ammo Konfederatsiya ichki nizolarga duch keldi va 1555 yilda Avani va 1563 yilgacha butun Shan shtatlarini bosib olgan Taunguni to'xtata olmadi.

Arakan (1287–1785)

Ma'badlar Mrauk U, ning poytaxti bo'lgan Mrauk U qirolligi, hozirgi paytda hukmronlik qilgan Rakxayn shtati.

Arakan amaldagi butparastlik davridan buyon mustaqil bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, Arakanning Laungkyet sulolasi samarasiz edi. Tashkil etilganiga qadar Mrauk-U qirolligi 1429 yilda Arakan ko'pincha katta qo'shnilar o'rtasida ushlanib qoladi va Ava va Pegu o'rtasidagi qirq yillik urush paytida o'zini jang maydoniga aylantiradi. Mrauk-U XV asrdan XVII asrlarga qadar o'z-o'zidan qudratli shohlikka aylandi, shu jumladan 1459 va 1666 yillar orasida Sharqiy Bengaliya. Arakan Taunoo sulolasiga qo'shilmagan yagona butparast podshohlik edi. [iqtibos kerak]

Taungoo sulolasi (1510–1752)

Birinchi Taungoo imperiyasi (1510–99)

14-asrning 80-yillaridan boshlab Ava Shan davlatlarining doimiy ichki isyonlari va tashqi hujumlariga duch keldi va parchalana boshladi. 1510 yilda Ava qirolligining uzoq janubi-sharqiy burchagida joylashgan Taungoo ham mustaqilligini e'lon qildi.^[20] Shan davlatlari Konfederatsiyasi 1527 yilda Avani zabt etganida, ko'plab qochqinlar janubi-sharqdan, tinchlikdagi yagona podshohlik va yirik dushman podshohliklari bilan o'ralgan Taunguga qochib ketishdi.

Taungoo, uning ambitsiyali shohi boshchiligida Tabinshveti va uning general o'rinbosari Bayinnaung, butparastlar imperiyasi qulaganidan beri mavjud bo'lgan mayda shohliklarni birlashtirishga kirishadi va eng yirik imperiyani topadi. Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo tarixi. Birinchidan, yuqoriga ko'tarilgan qirollik kuchliroq Xantavaddi ustidan g'alaba qozondi Taungoo-Xantavaddi urushi (1534–41). Tabinshveti poytaxtni 1539 yilda yangi bosib olingan Bagoga ko'chirdi.

Taungoo bor edi o'z vakolatlarini butparastlarga qadar kengaytirdi 1544 yilga kelib, ammo g'alaba qozona olmadi 1545–47 yillarda Arakan va Siam 1547–49 yillarda. Tabinshvextining vorisi Bayinnaung kengayish siyosatini davom ettirdi, 1555 yilda Avani, Yaqin / Cis-Salween Shan shtatlari (1557), Lan Na (1558), Manipur (1560), uzoqroq / Trans-Salween Shan davlatlari (1562-63), Siam (1564, 1569) va LAN Xang (1565-74) va g'arbiy va markaziy materikning katta qismini Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoni o'z tasarrufiga o'tkazdi.

Bayinnaung merosxo'r Shan boshliqlarining kuchini pasaytiradigan va ma'muriy tuzumni o'rnatdi va Shan urf-odatlarini erning past me'yorlariga moslashtirdi.^[21] Ammo u o'zining uzoq imperiyasida hamma joyda samarali ma'muriy tizimni takrorlay olmadi. Uning imperiyasi shohlari unga sodiq bo'lgan sobiq suveren shohliklarning erkin to'plamidir Kakkavatti (စ ကြ ဝ တေး မင်း, [sɛʔtɕà wedé mɪ́ɰ̃]; Taunoo qirolligi emas, balki Universal Hukmdor).

1581 yilda Bayinnaung vafot etganidan keyin haddan tashqari kengaygan imperiya ochildi. Siam 1584 yilda ajralib chiqib, 1605 yilgacha Birma bilan urushga kirishdi. 1597 yilga kelib qirollik barcha mol-mulkidan, shu jumladan sulolaning ajdodlar uyi Taunguodan mahrum bo'ldi. 1599 yilda Arakan kuchlari portugaliyalik yollanma askarlar yordam berishdi va isyon ko'targan Taungoo kuchlari bilan ittifoq qilib Peguni ishdan bo'shatishdi. Mamlakat betartiblikka tushib, har bir mintaqa podshohni da'vo qilmoqda. Portugaliyalik yollanma Filipe de Brito e Nicote zudlik bilan o'z arakanlik xo'jayinlariga qarshi isyon ko'tarib, o'z o'rnini topdi Goa - qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan portugal qoidasi Tanlin 1603 yilda.

Qayta tiklangan Taungoo qirolligi (Nyaungyan Restoration) (1599–1752)

Qayta tiklangan Taungoo yoki Nyaungyan Dynasty c. Milodiy 1650 yil.

Butparastlik imperiyasining qulashidan keyingi interregnum 250 yil davom etgan bo'lsa (1287-1555), Birinchi Taunguning qulashidan keyin bu nisbatan qisqa muddatli edi. Bayinnaungning o'g'illaridan biri, Nyaungyan Min, darhol birlashish harakatlarini boshladi va 1606 yilga qadar Yuqori Birma va Shanga yaqin bo'lgan davlatlar ustidan markaziy hokimiyatni muvaffaqiyatli tikladi.

Uning vorisi Anaukpetlun 1613 yilda Tanlyinda portugallarni mag'lubiyatga uchratdi. U yuqori qismini tikladi Tanintharyi sohilga Dawei va 1614 yilgacha siyamliklardan Lan Na. Shuningdek, u 1622–26 yillarda trans-Salaviy Shan davlatlarini (Kengtung va Sipsongpanna) egallab oldi.

Uning akasi Talun urushdan aziyat chekkan mamlakatni qayta tikladi. U 1635 yilda Birma tarixidagi birinchi ro'yxatga olishni buyurdi, bu qirollikda ikki millionga yaqin odam borligini ko'rsatdi. 1650 yilga kelib, uchta qodir qirol - Nyaungyan, Anaukpetlun va Talun - kichikroq, ammo ancha boshqariladigan qirollikni muvaffaqiyatli tikladilar.

Eng muhimi, yangi sulola asosiy xususiyatlari ostida davom etadigan huquqiy va siyosiy tizimni yaratishga kirishdi Konbaung sulolasi XIX asrga qadar. Toj merosxo'r hokimiyatni butun Irravaddi vodiysida tayinlangan gubernatorlik bilan to'liq almashtirdi va Shan boshliqlarining meros huquqlarini ancha pasaytirdi. Shuningdek, u monastirlarning boyligi va avtonomiyasining doimiy o'sishida rol o'ynab, ko'proq soliq bazasini yaratdi. Uning savdo va dunyoviy ma'muriy islohotlari 80 yildan ortiq vaqt davomida farovon iqtisodiyotni qurdi.^[22] Bir necha marta qo'zg'olonlar va tashqi urush bundan mustasno - Birma mag'lub bo'ldi Siamning 1662–64 yillarda Lan Na va Mottamani olishga urinishi - qirollik XVII asrning qolgan qismida asosan tinch edi.

Qirollik asta-sekin tanazzulga yuz tutdi va "saroy shohlari" ning obro'si 1720-yillarda tezda yomonlashdi. 1724 yildan boshlab Meitei odamlar yuqori qismga hujum qila boshladi Chindvin daryosi. 1727 yilda janubiy Lan Na (Chiang May ) muvaffaqiyatli isyon ko'tarib, shimoliy Lan Na ni tark etdi (Chiang Saen ) tobora nominal bo'lgan Birma qoidasi ostida. Meitei reydlari 17-asrning 30-yillarida kuchayib, Birmaning markaziy qismining tobora chuqurroq qismlariga etib bordi.

1740 yilda Quyi Birmadagi Mon isyon ko'tarib, asos solgan Xantavaddi qirolligi tiklandi va 1745 yilga kelib Quyi Birmaning katta qismini nazorat qildi. Siyamliklar 1752 yilga qadar o'zlarining hokimiyatini Tanintarey sohiliga ko'tarishdi. Xantavaddi 1751 yil noyabrda Yuqori Birmani bosib oldi va 1752 yil 23 martda Avani egallab oldi va 266 yoshli Taungoo sulolasiga barham berdi.

Konbaung sulolasi (1752–1885)

Birlashish

Ava qulaganidan ko'p o'tmay, yangi sulola paydo bo'ldi Shvebo Xantavaddi vakolatiga qarshi chiqish. Keyingi 70 yil ichida juda militaristik Konbaunglar sulolasi birinchilardan keyin ikkinchi o'rinda turadigan eng yirik Birma imperiyasini yaratishga kirishdi. Bayinnaung. By 1759 Shoh Alaungpaya Konbaung kuchlari butun Birmani (va Manipurni) birlashtirdilar, Mon boshchiligidagi Xantavaddi sulolasini birdaniga yo'q qildilar va Xantavaddi - frantsuzlarni qurol bilan ta'minlagan Evropa kuchlarini quvib chiqardilar. Tanlin va ingliz tilidan Cape Negrais.^[23]

Siam va Xitoy bilan urushlar

Keyin qirollik bilan urushga kirishdi Ayutthaya Qirolligi paytida Tanintaryi qirg'og'ini Mottamaga qadar egallab olgan Birma fuqarolar urushi (1740–1757) va Mon qochoqlariga boshpana bergan. By 1767, Konbaung qo'shinlari Laosning katta qismini bo'ysundirgan va Siamni mag'lub etdi. Ammo ular qolgan siyam qarshiliklarini tugata olmadilar, chunki ular himoyalanishga majbur bo'ldilar Qing Xitoy tomonidan to'rtta bosqin (1765–1769).^[24] Birma mudofaasi "Tsing sulolasi ilgari olib borgan eng dahshatli chegara urushida" bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, Birma bir necha yillar davomida dunyodagi eng yirik imperiyaning navbatdagi bosqini bilan ovora edi. Qing chegaraoldi hududlarida og'ir harbiy tarkibni o'n yil davomida ushlab turdi va yana urush olib borish maqsadida ikki o'n ikki yil davomida chegaraaro savdoni taqiqladi.^[25]

Ayutthaya Qirolligi o'zlarining yo'qolgan hududlarini qaytarib olish uchun Konbaungni Tsin bilan ovora qilishgan 1770 va qo'shimcha ravishda, davom etdi 1776 yilga qadar Lan Na ning katta qismini egallab olish Ikki asr davomida mintaqada yuz bergan Birma suzerainiteti tugadi.^[26] Ular yana urushga kirishdilar 1785–1786, 1787, 1792, 1803-1808, 1809-1812 va 1849-1855, ammo bularning barchasi tang ahvolga tushib qoldi. Bir necha o'n yillik urushlardan so'ng, ikki mamlakat asosan Tanintariy (Birma) va Lan Na (Siam) bilan almashdilar.

G'arb tomon kengayish va Britaniya imperiyasi bilan urushlar

Shimoli-sharqda qudratli Xitoy va janubi-sharqda qayta tiklanayotgan Siam bilan yuzma-yuz turibdi, Shoh Bodavpaya kengaytirish uchun g'arbga burildi.^[27] U zabt etdi Arakan yilda 1785, Manipurni qo'shib oldi 1814 va qo'lga olingan Assam bilan uzoq vaqt davomida aniqlanmagan chegaraga olib borgan 1817-1819 yillarda Britaniya Hindistoni. Bodawpayaning vorisi King Bagyidaw 1819 yilda Manipurda va 1821-1822 yillarda Assamda ingliz qo'zg'olonlarini bostirish uchun qoldirildi. Britaniyaning qo'riqlanadigan hududlaridan qo'zg'olonchilar tomonidan transchegaraviy reydlar va Birmalar tomonidan transchegaraviy reydlar Birinchi Angliya-Birma urushi (1824–26).^[28]

Britaniyalik askarlar qirol Thibav kuchlariga tegishli to'plarni demontaj qilmoqda, Uchinchi Angliya-Birma urushi, Ava, 1885 yil 27-noyabr. Fotosuratchi: Xuper, Uillobi Uolles (1837-1912).

Ikki yil davom etgan va qiymati 13 million funt bo'lgan birinchi Angliya-Birma urushi Britaniya Hindiston tarixidagi eng uzoq va eng qimmat urush bo'ldi,^[29] ammo inglizlarning hal qiluvchi g'alabasi bilan yakunlandi. Birma Bodawpayaning barcha g'arbiy sotib olishlarini (Arakan, Manipur va Assam) va Tenasserimni topshirdi. Birma bir million funt sterling (keyinchalik 5 million AQSh dollari) miqdorida katta tovon puli to'lab, yillar davomida ezilib kelgan.^[30] Yilda 1852, inglizlar Pegu viloyatini bir tomonlama va osonlik bilan egallab olishdi Ikkinchi Angliya-Birma urushi.^[28][31]

Urushdan keyin qirol Mindon Birma davlati va iqtisodiyotini modernizatsiya qilishga urinib ko'rdi va inglizlarning keyingi tajovuzlarini oldini olish uchun savdo va hududiy imtiyozlarni, jumladan, Karenni shtatlari 1875 yilda inglizlarga. Shunday bo'lsa-da, inglizlar, konsolidatsiyadan qo'rqishadi Frantsuz Hind-Xitoy, mamlakatning qolgan qismini qo'shib oldi Uchinchi Angliya-Birma urushi 1885 yilda,^{[32][shubhali – muhokama qilish]} va oxirgi Birma qirolini yubordi Thibaw va uning oilasi Hindistonga surgun qilingan.

Ma'muriy va iqtisodiy islohotlar

Konbaung shohlari kengaytirilgan ma'muriy islohotlarni dastlab Taungoo sulolasi tiklangan davrda (1599–1752) boshlanib, mislsiz ichki nazorat va tashqi kengayish darajalariga erishdilar. Konbaung shohlari pasttekisliklarda nazoratni kuchaytirdi va Shan sofalari (boshliqlari) ning merosxo'rlik imtiyozlarini kamaytirdi. Konbaung amaldorlari, ayniqsa 1780 yildan so'ng, tijorat islohotlarini boshladilar, bu esa davlat daromadlarini ko'paytirdi va uni yanada prognozli qildi. Pul iqtisodiyoti barqarorlashishda davom etdi. 1857 yilda toj naqd soliqlar va ish haqlarining to'laqonli tizimini ochib berdi, unga mamlakatdagi birinchi standartlashtirilgan kumush tanga yordam berdi.^[24]

Madaniyat

Madaniy integratsiya davom etdi. Tarixda birinchi marta Birma tili va madaniyati butun Irravaddi vodiysida hukmronlik qila boshladi, 1830 yilgacha Mon tili va millati butunlay tutilib qoldi. Yaqinroq bo'lgan Shan knyazliklari pasttekislik me'yorlarini qabul qildilar. Birma adabiyoti va teatri evolyutsiyasi va o'sishi davom etdi, bu davr uchun juda katta yoshdagi erkaklarning savodxonlik darajasi (barcha erkaklarning yarmi va ayollarning 5%) yordam berdi.^[33] Konbaung shohlari atrofida monastir va oddiy elita, xususan Bodavpayaning hukmronligi davrida, shuningdek, Sudhamma islohoti deb nomlanuvchi birma intellektual hayotida va monastir tashkilotida va amaliyotida katta islohotlar boshlandi. Bu boshqa narsalar qatori Birmaning birinchi to'g'ri davlat tarixiga olib keldi.^[34]

Britaniya hukmronligi

Ushbu bo'lim uchun qo'shimcha iqtiboslar kerak tekshirish. Iltimos yordam bering ushbu maqolani yaxshilang tomonidan ishonchli manbalarga iqtiboslarni qo'shish. Ma'lumot manbasi bo'lmagan material shubha ostiga olinishi va olib tashlanishi mumkin. (2011 yil dekabr) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

Sule Pagoda yo'lidagi Yozuvchi sudi, narigi tomonida Sule Pagoda joylashgan, Rangun, 1868. Fotosuratchi: J. Jekson.

Buyuk Britaniya 1886 yilda poytaxti Rangun bilan Birmani Hindistonning provinsiyasiga aylantirdi. An'anaviy Birma jamiyati monarxiyaning yo'q bo'lib ketishi va din va davlatning ajralib ketishi bilan keskin o'zgargan.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Urush rasman bir necha ikki haftadan so'ng tugagan bo'lsa-da, Birma shimolida qarshilik 1890 yilgacha davom etdi, inglizlar oxir-oqibat qishloqlarni muntazam ravishda yo'q qilish va barcha partizanlik faoliyatini to'xtatish uchun yangi amaldorlarni tayinlashga kirishdilar. Jamiyatning iqtisodiy mohiyati ham tubdan o'zgardi. Ochilgandan so'ng Suvaysh kanali, Birma guruchiga talab kuchayib, keng maydonlar etishtirish uchun ochildi. Biroq, yangi erni ishlov berishga tayyorlash uchun dehqonlar hind pul sotuvchilaridan qarz olishga majbur bo'ldilar chettiars yuqori foiz stavkalari bo'yicha va ko'pincha mahrum bo'lgan er va chorva mollari undirib olinadigan va ko'chirilgan. Ishlarning aksariyati hindistonlik mardikorlarga berildi va "dacoity" (qurolli talon-taroj) ga murojaat qilgani sababli butun qishloqlar noqonuniy deb topildi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Birma iqtisodiyoti o'sib borar ekan, hokimiyat va boylikning aksariyati bir nechta ingliz firmalari qo'lida qoldi, Angliya-birma xalqi, va Hindistondan kelgan muhojirlar.^[35] Davlat xizmati asosan Angliya-Birma jamoati va hindular tomonidan ishlagan va Bamarlar deyarli deyarli harbiy xizmatdan chetlatilgan.

20-asr boshlariga kelib millatchilik harakati shakl shaklida shakllana boshladi Yosh erkaklar buddistlar uyushmasi (YMBA), YMCA, chunki diniy birlashmalarga mustamlakachi hokimiyat tomonidan ruxsat berildi. Keyinchalik ular bilan bog'liq bo'lgan Birma assotsiatsiyalari Bosh Kengashi (GCBA) tomonidan almashtirildi Wunthanu athin yoki Birma-Uy bo'ylab qishloqlarda paydo bo'lgan milliy uyushmalar.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} 1900-1911 yillarda "irland buddisti" U Dhammaloka diniy asoslarda xristianlik va inglizlar hukmronligiga qarshi chiqdi. Birma rahbarlarining yangi avlodi 20-asrning boshlarida Londonga yuridik o'qish uchun borishga ruxsat berilgan o'qimishli sinflar orasida paydo bo'ldi. Ular ushbu tajribadan Birma ahvolini isloh qilish yo'li bilan yaxshilash mumkin degan ishonch bilan chiqib ketishdi. 20-yillarning boshlarida amalga oshirilgan progressiv konstitutsiyaviy islohotlar cheklangan vakolatlarga ega bo'lgan qonun chiqaruvchiga, universitetga va Hindiston ma'muriyati tarkibida Birma uchun ko'proq avtonomiyaga olib keldi. Birmaliklarning davlat xizmatidagi vakolatxonasini ko'paytirish bo'yicha harakatlar ham amalga oshirildi. Ba'zi odamlar o'zgarish tezligi etarlicha tez emas va islohotlar etarlicha keng emasligini his qila boshladilar.

Madras Lancer Lines-da yo'l chetida joylashgan sabzavot do'koni, Mandalay, 1886 yil yanvar. Fotosuratchi: Xuper, Uillobi Uolles (1837-1912).

1920 yilda tarixdagi birinchi universitet talabalarining ish tashlashi boshlandi^{[iqtibos kerak ]} talabalar faqat elitaga foyda keltiradi va mustamlakachilik hukmronligini davom ettiradi deb hisoblagan yangi Universitet qonuniga norozilik sifatida. Butun mamlakat bo'ylab mustamlakachilik ta'limi tizimiga qarshi "Milliy maktablar" paydo bo'ldi va ish tashlash "sifatida nishonlandi"Milliy kun '.^[36] Keyingi 1920-yillarda yana ish tashlashlar va soliqqa qarshi norozilik namoyishlari bo'lib o'tdi Wunthanu athins. Siyosiy faollar orasida taniqli buddist rohiblar bo'lgan (pongyi), masalan, U Ottama va U Seinda Arakan keyinchalik mustaqillikka erishgandan keyin inglizlarga va keyinchalik millatchi hukumatga qarshi qurolli qo'zg'olonni boshlagan va qamoqdagi uzoq davom etgan ochlik e'lonidan keyin vafot etgan harakatning birinchi shahidi U Visora.^[36] (Asosiy ko'chalardan biri Yangon U Visoraning nomi bilan atalgan.) 1930 yil dekabrda mahalliy soliq noroziligi tomonidan Sayya San Tarrawaddi tezda hukumatga qarshi mintaqaviy, so'ngra milliy qo'zg'olonga aylandi. Ikki yil davom etadi Galon afsonaviy nomlangan isyon garuda - ning dushmani nagas (ya'ni inglizlar) - qo'zg'olonchilar olib borgan vimpellar bilan bezatilgan minglab ingliz qo'shinlarini keyingi siyosiy islohotlar va'dalari bilan birga bostirishni talab qildi. Oxir oqibat qatl qilingan Say Sanning sudi bir nechta bo'lajak milliy rahbarlarga, shu jumladan, ruxsat berdi Ba Maw va U ko'rdi, uning himoyasida ishtirok etgan, mashhurlikka erishish uchun.^[36]

Palovka Ramapura Rangun daryosidagi Britaniyalik Hindiston bug 'navigatsiya kompaniyasining (o'ngda) Moulmindan yangi kelgan. 1895. Fotosuratchilar: Vatt va Sken

1930 yil may oyida asos solingan Dobama Asiayone ("Biz Bamars Assotsiatsiyasi"), uning a'zolari o'zlarini chaqirdilar Takin (beri istehzo bilan atalgan ism chayqagan birma tilida "usta" degan ma'noni anglatadi, aksincha egasi - o'zlarini mustamlaka xo'jayinlari tomonidan tortib olingan muddatga haqli mamlakatning haqiqiy xo'jayinlari ekanliklarini e'lon qilish).^[36] 1936 yildagi ikkinchi universitet talabalarining ish tashlashi haydab chiqarilishi bilan boshlandi Aung San va Ko Nu, rahbarlari Rangun universiteti Talabalar uyushmasi (RUSU), o'zlarining universitet jurnalida maqola yozgan muallifning ismini oshkor qilishdan bosh tortgani uchun, universitetning yuqori lavozimli mulozimlaridan biriga shafqatsiz hujum qildi. U tarqaldi Mandalay Butun Birma Talabalar Ittifoqini (ABSU) tashkil etishga olib keladi. Aung San va Nu keyinchalik talabalardan milliy siyosat sari intilayotgan Takin harakatiga qo'shilishdi.^[36] 1937 yilda inglizlar Birmani Hindistondan ajratdilar va mustamlakaga to'liq konstitutsiya bilan yig'ilishga chaqirgan yangi konstitutsiya berdilar, ammo bu ikkiga bo'linadigan masala bo'lib chiqdi, chunki ba'zi birmalar bu ularni hindlarning har qanday islohotlaridan chetlatish uchun qilingan hiyla-nayrang deb o'ylardi, boshqa birmalar esa Birmani Hindiston nazoratidan olib tashlagan har qanday harakatni ijobiy qadam deb bildi. Ba Maw Birmaning birinchi bosh vaziri bo'lib ishlagan, ammo uning o'rnini egallagan U ko'rdi 1939 yilda, 1940 yildan bosh vazir lavozimida ishlagan va 1942 yil 19 yanvarda yaponlar bilan muloqot qilgani uchun inglizlar tomonidan hibsga olingan.

A wave of strikes and protests that started from the oilfields of central Burma in 1938 became a general strike with far-reaching consequences. Yilda Rangun student protesters, after successfully picketing the Secretariat, the seat of the colonial government, were charged by the Inglizlar o'rnatilgan politsiya wielding batons and killing a Rangun universiteti student called Aung Kyaw. In Mandalay, the police shot into a crowd of protesters led by Buddhist monks killing 17 people. The movement became known as Htaung thoun ya byei ayeidawbon (the '1300 Revolution' named after the Burmese calendar year),^[36] and 20 December, the day the first martyr Aung Kyaw fell, commemorated by students as 'Bo Aung Kyaw kuni '.^[37]

World War II and Japan

Some Burmese nationalists saw the outbreak of Ikkinchi jahon urushi as an opportunity to extort concessions from the British in exchange for support in the war effort. Other Burmese, such as the Thakin movement, opposed Burma's participation in the war under any circumstances. Aung San co-founded the Birma Kommunistik partiyasi (CPB) with other Thakins in August 1939.^[36] Marksistik literature as well as tracts from the Sinn Feyn movement in Ireland had been widely circulated and read among political activists. Aung San also co-founded the People's Revolutionary Party (PRP), renamed the Socialist Party after the Ikkinchi jahon urushi. He was also instrumental in founding the Ozodlik bloki by forging an alliance of the Dobama, ABSU, politically active monks and Ba Maw "s Poor Man's Party.^[36] After the Dobama organisation called for a national uprising, an arrest warrant was issued for many of the organisation's leaders including Aung San, who escaped to China. Aung San's intention was to make contact with the Xitoy kommunistlari but he was detected by the Japanese authorities who offered him support by forming a secret intelligence unit called the Minami Kikan headed by Colonel Suzuki with the objective of closing the Birma yo'li and supporting a national uprising. Aung San briefly returned to Burma to enlist twenty-nine young men who went to Japan with him to receive military training on Xaynan oroli, China, and they came to be known as the "Thirty Comrades ". When the Japanese occupied Bangkok in December 1941, Aung San announced the formation of the Burma Independence Army (BIA) in anticipation of the Japanese invasion of Burma in 1942.^[36]

British soldiers on patrol in the ruins of the Burmese town of Bahe during the advance on Mandalay, January 1945.

BIA 1942 yil bahorida mamlakatning ayrim hududlarida vaqtinchalik hukumat tuzdi, ammo Yaponiyaning rahbariyati ichida Birmaning kelajagi borasida kelishmovchiliklar mavjud edi. While Colonel Suzuki encouraged the Thirty Comrades to form a provisional government, the Japanese Military leadership had never formally accepted such a plan. Eventually the Japanese Army turned to Ba Maw to form a government. During the war in 1942, the BIA had grown in an uncontrolled manner, and in many districts officials and even criminals appointed themselves to the BIA. It was reorganised as the Burma Defence Army (BDA) under the Japanese but still headed by Aung San. While the BIA had been an irregular force, the BDA was recruited by selection and trained as a conventional army by Japanese instructors. Ba Maw was afterwards declared head of state, and his cabinet included both Aung San as War Minister and the Communist leader Thakin Thundan as Minister of Land and Agriculture as well as the Socialist leaders Thakins Nu and Mya. When the Japanese declared Burma, in theory, independent in 1943, the Burma Defence Army (BDA) was renamed the Birma milliy armiyasi (BNA).^[36]

It soon became apparent that Japanese promises of independence were merely a sham and that Ba Maw aldangan. As the war turned against the Japanese, they declared Burma a fully sovereign state on 1 August 1943, but this was just another facade. Disillusioned, Aung San began negotiations with Communist leaders Thakin Thundan va Thakin Soe, and Socialist leaders Ba Swe va Kyaw Nyein which led to the formation of the Fashistik tashkilot (AFO) 1944 yil avgustda CPB, PRP va BNA ning maxfiy yig'ilishida Pegu. Keyinchalik AFO nomi o'zgartirildi Fashistlarga qarshi Xalq ozodligi ligasi (AFPFL).^[36] Thakin Thundan va Soe, while in Insein prison in July 1941, had co-authored the Insein Manifesti Dobama harakatidagi hukmron fikrga qarshi bo'lib, jahon fashizmini bo'lajak urushda asosiy dushman deb topdi va inglizlar bilan keng ittifoq koalitsiyasida vaqtincha hamkorlik qilishga chaqirdi. Sovet Ittifoqi. So yapon istilosiga qarshi qarshilik ko'rsatish uchun allaqachon er ostiga o'tgan edi va Tunga qaraganda Yapon razvedkasini Soega etkaza oldi, boshqa kommunistlar esa Thakin Thein Pe va Kalay Shve yilda surgun qilingan mustamlaka hukumati bilan aloqa o'rnatdi Simla, Hindiston.^[36]

There were informal contacts between the AFO and the Ittifoqchilar in 1944 and 1945 through the British organisation Majburiy 136. On 27 March 1945 the Burma National Army rose up in a countrywide rebellion against the Japanese.^[36] 27 March had been celebrated as 'Resistance Day' until the military renamed it 'Tatmadaw (Armed Forces) Day'. Aung San and others subsequently began negotiations with Lord Mountbatten va rasmiy ravishda qo'shildi Ittifoqchilar as the Patriotic Burmese Forces (PBF). At the first meeting, the AFO represented itself to the British as the provisional government of Burma with Thakin Soe as chairman and Aung San as a member of its ruling committee. The Japanese were routed from most of Burma by May 1945. Negotiations then began with the British over the disarming of the AFO and the participation of its troops in a post-war Burma Army. Some veterans had been formed into a paramilitary force under Aung San, called the Pyithu yèbaw tat or People's Volunteer Organisation (PVO), and were openly drilling in uniform.^[36] The absorption of the PBF was concluded successfully at the Kendi konferentsiya Seylon 1945 yil sentyabrda.^[36]

Yapon istilosi ostida 170 mingdan 250 minggacha tinch aholi halok bo'ldi.^[38][39]

From the Japanese surrender to Aung San's assassination

The surrender of the Japanese brought a military administration to Burma and demands to try Aung San for his involvement in a murder during military operations in 1942. Lord Mountbatten realised that this was an impossibility considering Aung San's popular appeal.^[36]

After the war ended, the British Governor, Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith qaytib keldi. The restored government established a political program that focused on physical reconstruction of the country and delayed discussion of independence.

The AFPFL opposed the government, leading to political instability in the country. A rift had also developed in the AFPFL between the Communists and Aung San together with the Socialists over strategy, which led to Than Tun being forced to resign as general secretary in July 1946 and the expulsion of the CPB from the AFPFL the following October.^[36]

Dorman-Smith was replaced by Sir Hubert Rance as the new governor, and almost immediately after his appointment the Rangoon Police went on strike. The strike, starting in September 1946, then spread from the police to government employees and came close to becoming a general strike.

Rance calmed the situation by meeting with Aung San and convincing him to join the Governor's Executive Council along with other members of the AFPFL.^[36] The new executive council, which now had increased credibility in the country, began negotiations for Burmese independence, which were concluded successfully in London as the Aung San -Attli Agreement on 27 January 1947.^[36] The agreement left parts of the communist and conservative branches of the AFPFL dissatisfied, however, sending the Red Flag Communists led by Thakin Soe underground and the conservatives into opposition.

Aung San also succeeded in concluding an agreement with ethnic minorities for a unified Burma at the Panglong konferentsiyasi on 12 February, celebrated since as 'Union Day'. U Aung Zan Wai, U Pe Khin, Myoma U Than Kywe, Major Aung, Sir Maung Gyi and Dr. Sein Mya Maung. were most important negotiators and leaders of the historical pinlon (panglong) Conference negotiated with Burma national top leader General Aung San and other top leaders in 1947. All these leaders decided to join together to form the Union of Burma. Union day celebration is one of the greatest in the history of Burma. The popularity of the AFPFL, now dominated by Aung San and the Socialists, was eventually confirmed when it won an overwhelming victory in the April 1947 constituent assembly elections.^[36] On 19 July 1947 U ko'rdi, a conservative pre-war Prime Minister of Burma, engineered the assassination of Aung San and several members of his cabinet including his eldest brother Ba Win, while meeting in the Secretariat.^[36][40][41] 19 July has been commemorated since as Shahidlar kuni. Shortly after, rebellion broke out in the Arakan led by the veteran monk U Seinda, and it began to spread to other districts.^[36]

Thakin Nu, the Socialist leader, was now asked to form a new cabinet, and he presided over Burmese independence which was established under the 1947 yilgi Birma mustaqilligi to'g'risidagi qonun on 4 January 1948. The popular sentiment to part with the British was so strong at the time that Burma opted not to join the Millatlar Hamdo'stligi, unlike India or Pakistan.^[36]

Independent Burma

1948–62

The first years of Burmese independence were marked by successive insurgencies by the Red Flag Communists boshchiligidagi Thakin Soe, White Flag Communists boshchiligidagi Thakin Thundan, Yèbaw Hpyu (White-band PVO) led by Bo La Yaung, a'zosi Thirty Comrades, army rebels calling themselves the Revolutionary Burma Army (RBA) led by Communist officers Bo Zeya, Bo Yan Aung va Bo Yè Htut – all three of them members of the Thirty Comrades, Arakanese Muslims yoki Mujohid, va Karen milliy ittifoqi (KNU).^[36]

After the Communist victory in China in 1949 remote areas of Northern Burma were for many years controlled by an army of Gomintang (KMT) forces under the command of General Li Mi.^[36]

Burma accepted foreign assistance in rebuilding the country in these early years, but continued American support for the Chinese Nationalist military presence in Burma finally resulted in the country rejecting most foreign aid, refusing to join the South-East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO ) and supporting the Bandung konferentsiyasi of 1955.^[36] Burma generally strove to be impartial in world affairs and was one of the first countries in the world to recognise Isroil va Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi.

By 1958, the country was largely beginning to recover economically, but was beginning to fall apart politically due to a split in the AFPFL into two factions, one led by Thakins Nu and Tin, the other by Ba Swe va Kyaw Nyein.^[36] And this despite the unexpected success of U Nu's 'Arms for Democracy' offer taken up by U Seinda in the Arakan, the Pa-O, some Mon and Shan groups, but more significantly by the PVO surrendering their arms.^[36] The situation however became very unstable in parliament, with U Nu surviving a no-confidence vote only with the support of the opposition National United Front (NUF), believed to have 'crypto-communists' amongst them.^[36] Army hardliners now saw the 'threat' of the CPB coming to an agreement with U Nu through the NUF, and in the end U Nu 'invited' Army Chief of Staff General Ne Win to take over the country.^[36] Over 400 'communist sympathisers' were arrested, of which 153 were deported to the Coco Island in the Andaman dengizi. Among them was the NUF leader Aung Than, older brother of Aung San. The Botataung, Kyemon va Rangoon Daily newspapers were also closed down.^[36]

Ne Win's muvaqqat hukumat successfully established the situation and paved the way for new general elections in 1960 that returned U Nu's Union Party with a large majority.^[36] The situation did not remain stable for long, when the Shan Federal harakat, started by Nyaung Shve Savbva San-Shve Tayk (the first President of independent Burma 1948–52) and aspiring to a 'loose' federation, was seen as a separatist movement insisting on the government honouring the right to secession in 10 years provided for by the 1947 Constitution. Ne Win had already succeeded in stripping the Shan Sawbwas of their feudal powers in exchange for comfortable pensions for life in 1959.

1962–88

On 2 March 1962, Ne Win, with sixteen other senior military officers, staged a Davlat to'ntarishi, arrested U Nu, Sao Shwe Thaik and several others, and declared a socialist state to be run by their Ittifoq inqilobiy kengashi. Sao Shwe Thaik's son, Sao Mye Thaik, was shot dead in what was generally described as a "bloodless" coup. Thibaw Sawbwa Sao Kya Seng^{[42][dairesel ma'lumotnoma ]} yaqinidagi nazorat punktida to'xtatilgandan keyin ham sirli ravishda g'oyib bo'ldi Taunggi.^[36]

A number of protests followed the coup, and initially the military's response was mild.^[43] However, on 7 July 1962, a peaceful student protest on Rangoon University campus was suppressed by the military, killing over 100 students. The next day, the army blew up the Students Union building.^[36] Peace talks were convened between the RC and various armed insurgent groups in 1963, but without any breakthrough, and during the talks as well as in the aftermath of their failure, hundreds were arrested in Rangoon and elsewhere from both the right and the left of the political spectrum. All opposition parties were banned on 28 March 1964.^[36] The Kachin insurgency by the Kachin Mustaqillik tashkiloti (KIO) had begun earlier in 1961 triggered by U Nu's declaration of Buddhism as the state religion, and the Shan davlat armiyasi (SSA), led by Sao Shwe Thaik's wife Mahadevi and son Chao Tzang Yaunghwe, launched a rebellion in 1964 as a direct consequence of the 1962 military coup.^[36]

Ne Win quickly took steps to transform Burma into his vision of a "socialist state" and to isolate the country from contact with the rest of the world. A bir partiyali tizim was established with his newly formed Birma sotsialistik dasturi partiyasi (BSPP) in complete control.^[36] Commerce and industry were nationalised across the board, but the economy did not grow at first if at all as the government put too much emphasis on industrial development at the expense of agriculture. In April 1972, General Ne Win and the rest of the Ittifoq inqilobiy kengashi retired from the military, but now as U Ne Win, he continued to run the country through the BSPP. A new constitution was promulgated in January 1974 that resulted in the creation of a Xalq yig'ilishi (Pyithu Hluttaw) that held supreme legislative, executive, and judicial authority, and local People's Councils. Ne Win became the president of the new government.^[36]

Beginning in May 1974, a wave of strikes hit Rangoon and elsewhere in the country against a backdrop of corruption, inflation and food shortages, especially rice. In Rangoon workers were arrested at the Insein railway yard, and troops opened fire on workers at the Thamaing textile mill and Simmalaik dockyard.^[36] In December 1974, the biggest anti-government demonstrations to date broke out over the funeral of former BMT Bosh kotibi U Thant.^[36] U Thant had been former prime minister U Nu 's closest advisor in the 1950s and was seen as a symbol of opposition to the military regime. The Burmese people felt that U Thant was denied a state funeral that he deserved as a statesman of international stature because of his association with U Nu.

On 23 March 1976, over 100 students were arrested for holding a peaceful ceremony (Hmaing yabyei) to mark the centenary of the birth of Takin Kodav Xmaing who was the greatest Burmese poet and writer and nationalist leader of the 20th century history of Burma. He had inspired a whole generation of Burmese nationalists and writers by his work mainly written in verse, fostering immense pride in their history, language and culture, and urging them to take direct action such as strikes by students and workers. It was Hmaing, as leader of the mainstream Dobama (Us Burma) Organization, who sent the Thirty Comrades abroad for military training, which became the origin of modern Myanma armiyasi, and after independence devoted his life to internal peace and national reconciliation until he died at the age of 88 in 1964. Hmaing lies buried in a mausoleum at the foot of the Shwedagon Pagoda.^[44]

A young staff officer called Captain Ohn Kyaw Myint conspired with a few fellow officers in 1976 to assassinate Ne Win and San Yu, but the plot was uncovered and the officer tried and hanged.^[36][45]

In 1978, a military operation was conducted against the Rohinja Muslims in Arakan, deb nomlangan King Dragon operation, causing 250,000 qochqinlar to flee to neighbouring Bangladesh.

U Nu, after his release from prison in October 1966, had left Burma in April 1969, and formed the Parliamentary Democracy Party (PDP) the following August in Bangkok, Thailand with the former Thirty Comrades, Bo Let Ya, co-founder of the CPB and former Minister of Defence and deputy prime minister, Bo Yan Naing, and U Thwin, ex-BIA and former Minister of Trade. Another member of the Thirty Comrades, Bohmu Aung, former Minister of Defence, joined later. The fourth, Bo Setkya, who had gone underground after the 1962 coup, died in Bangkok shortly before U Nu arrived.^[36] The PDP launched an armed rebellion across the Thai border from 1972 till 1978 when Bo Let Ya was killed in an attack by the Karen National Union (KNU). U Nu, Bohmu Aung and Bo Yan Naing returned to Rangoon after the 1980 amnesty.^[36] Ne Win also secretly held peace talks later in 1980 with the KIO and the CPB, again ending in a deadlock as before.^[36]

Crisis and 1988 Uprising

Ne Win retired as president in 1981, but remained in power as Chairman of the BSPP until his sudden unexpected announcement to step down on 23 July 1988.^[36] In the 1980s, the economy began to grow as the government relaxed restrictions on foreign aid, but by the late 1980s falling commodity prices and rising debt led to an economic crisis. This led to economic reforms in 1987–1988 that relaxed socialist controls and encouraged foreign investment. This was not enough, however, to stop growing turmoil in the country, compounded by periodic "demonetisation" of certain bank notes in the currency, the last of which was decreed in September 1987, wiping out the savings of the vast majority of people.^[36]

In September 1987, Burma's de facto ruler U Ne Win suddenly cancelled certain currency notes, which caused a great down-turn in the economy. The main reason for the cancellation of these notes was superstition on U Ne Win's part, as he considered the number nine his lucky number—he only allowed 45 and 90 kyat notes, because these were divisible by nine.^[46] Burma's admittance to Eng kam rivojlangan mamlakat status by the UN the following December highlighted its economic bankruptcy.^[36]

Triggered by brutal police repression of student-led protests causing the death of over a hundred students and civilians in March and June 1988, widespread protests and demonstrations broke out on 8 August throughout the country. The military responded by firing into the crowds, alleging Communist infiltration. Violence, chaos and anarchy reigned. Civil administration had ceased to exist, and by September of that year, the country was on the verge of a revolution. The armed forces, under the nominal command of General Maungni ko'rdim, staged a coup on 8 August to restore order. Davomida 8888 qo'zg'olon, as it became known, the military killed thousands. The military swept aside the Constitution of 1974 in favour of harbiy holat ostida Davlat qonunlari va tartiblarini tiklash bo'yicha kengash (SLORC) with Saw Maung as chairman and prime minister.^[36]

At a special six-hour press conference on 5 August 1989, Brig. General Khin Nyunt, the SLORC Secretary 1, and chief of Military Intelligence Service (MIS), claimed that the uprising had been orchestrated by the Birma Kommunistik partiyasi through its underground organisation.^[47] Although there had inevitably been some underground CPB presence as well as that of ethnic insurgent groups, there was no evidence of their being in charge to any extent.^[36] In fact, in March 1989, the CPB leadership was overthrown by a rebellion by the Qo'qon va Va troops that it had come to depend on after losing its former strongholds in central Burma and re-establishing bases in the northeast in the late 1960s; the Communist leaders were soon forced into exile across the Chinese border.^[36]

1990–2006

The military government announced a change of name for the country in English from Birma ga Myanma in 1989. It also continued the economic reforms started by the old regime and called for a Constituent Assembly to revise the 1974 Constitution. This led to multiparty elections in May 1990 in which the Demokratiya uchun milliy liga (NLD) won a landslide victory over the Milliy birlik partiyasi (NUP, the successor to the BSPP) and about a dozen smaller parties.^[36]

The military would not let the assembly convene, and continued to hold the two leaders of the NLD, Kalay Oo va Aun San Su Chi, daughter of Aung San, under the house arrest imposed on them the previous year. Burma came under increasing international pressure to convene the elected assembly, particularly after Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Tinchlik bo'yicha Nobel mukofoti in 1991, and also faced iqtisodiy sanktsiyalar. In April 1992 the military replaced Maungni ko'rdim general bilan Shvedan.

Than Shwe released U Nu from prison and relaxed some of the restrictions on Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest, finally releasing her in 1995, although she was forbidden to leave Rangoon. Than Shwe also finally allowed a National Convention to meet in January 1993, but insisted that the assembly preserve a major role for the military in any future government, and suspended the convention from time to time. The NLD, fed up with the interference, walked out in late 1995, and the assembly was finally dismissed in March 1996 without producing a constitution.

During the 1990s, the military regime had also had to deal with several insurgencies by tribal minorities along its borders. Umumiy Khin Nyunt was able to negotiate cease-fire agreements that ended the fighting with the Qo'qon, hill tribes such as the Va, va Kachin, lekin Karen would not negotiate. The military finally captured the main Karen base at Manerplav in spring 1995, but there has still been no final peace settlement. Khun Sa, a major opium warlord who nominally controlled parts of Shan shtati, made a deal with the government in December 1995 after US pressure.

After the failure of the National Convention to create a new constitution, tensions between the government and the NLD mounted, resulting in two major crackdowns on the NLD in 1996 and 1997. The SLORC was abolished in November 1997 and replaced by the Davlat tinchligi va taraqqiyot kengashi (SPDC), but it was merely a cosmetic change. Continuing reports of human rights violations in Burma led the United States to intensify sanctions in 1997, and the Yevropa Ittifoqi followed suit in 2000.

The military placed Aun San Su Chi under house arrest again in September 2000 until May 2002, when her travel restrictions outside of Rangoon were also lifted. Reconciliation talks were held with the government, but these came to a stalemate and Suu Kyi was once again taken into custody in May 2003 after an ambush on her motorcade reportedly by a pro-military mob. The government also carried out another large-scale crackdown on the NLD, arresting many of its leaders and closing down most of its offices. The situation in Burma remains tense to this day.

In August 2003, Kyin Nyunt announced a seven-step "demokratiya sari yo'l xaritasi ", which the government claims it is in the process of implementing. There is no timetable associated with the government's plan, or any conditionality or independent mechanism for verifying that it is moving forward. For these reasons, most Western governments and Burma's neighbours have been sceptical and critical of the roadmap.

On 17 February 2005, the government reconvened the National Convention, for the first time since 1993, in an attempt to rewrite the Constitution. However, major pro-democracy organisations and parties, including the Demokratiya uchun milliy liga, were barred from participating, the military allowing only selected smaller parties. It was adjourned once again in January 2006.

In November 2005, the military junta started moving the government away from Yangon to an unnamed location near Kyatpyay just outside Pyinmana, to a newly designated capital city. This public action follows a long term unofficial policy of moving critical military and government infrastructure away from Yangon to avoid a repetition of the events of 1988. On Armed Forces Day (27 March 2006), the capital was officially named Naypyidaw Myodaw (lit. Royal City of the Seat of Kings).

In 2005, the capital city was relocated from Yangon ga Naypyidaw.

2006 yil noyabr oyida Xalqaro mehnat tashkiloti (ILO) announced it will be seeking – at the Xalqaro sud^[48] – "to prosecute members of the ruling Myanmar junta for crimes against humanity" over the continuous majburiy mehnat of its citizens by the military. According to the ILO, an estimated 800,000 people are subject to forced labour in Myanmar.^[49]

2007 anti-government protests

Protesters in Yangon with a banner that reads non-violence: national movement yilda Birma, in the background is Shvedagon Pagoda.

The 2007 Burmese anti-government protests were a series of anti-government protests that started in Burma on 15 August 2007. The immediate cause of the protests was mainly the unannounced decision of the ruling xunta, Davlat tinchligi va taraqqiyot kengashi, olib tashlash uchun yonilg'i subsidiyalari, which caused the price of dizel va benzin to suddenly rise as much as 100%, and the price of siqilgan tabiiy gaz for buses to increase fivefold in less than a week.^[50] The protest demonstrations were at first dealt with quickly and harshly by the junta, with dozens of protesters arrested and detained. Starting 18 September, the protests had been led by thousands of Buddist rohiblar, and those protests had been allowed to proceed until a renewed government crackdown on 26 September.^[51]

During the crackdown, there were rumours of disagreement within the Burmese military, but none were confirmed. At the time, independent sources reported, through pictures and accounts, 30 to 40 monks and 50 to 70 civilians killed as well as 200 beaten. However, other sources reveal more dramatic figures. In a White House statement President Bush said: "Monks have been beaten and killed ... Thousands of pro-democracy protesters have been arrested". Some news reports referred to the protests as the Saffron Revolution.^[52][53]

On 7 February 2008, SPDC announced that a referendum for the Constitution would be held, and Elections by 2010. The 2008 yil Birma konstitutsiyaviy referendumi was held on 10 May and promised a "discipline-flourishing democracy" for the country in the future.

Nargis sikloni

On 3 May 2008, Nargis sikloni devastated the country when winds of up to 215 km/h (135 mph)^[54] touched land in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division.^[55] It is estimated that more than 130,000 people died or went missing and damage totalled 10 billion US dollars; it was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history. The Butunjahon oziq-ovqat dasturi reported that, "Some villages have been almost totally eradicated and vast rice-growing areas are wiped out."^[56]

The United Nations estimated that as many as 1 million were left homeless and the Jahon Sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti "received reports of malaria outbreaks in the worst-affected area."^[57] Yet in the critical days following this disaster, Burma's isolationist regime complicated recovery efforts by delaying the entry of United Nations planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies. The government's failure to permit entry for large-scale international relief efforts was described by the United Nations as "unprecedented."^[58]

2011–2016

The 2011–2012 Burmese democratic reforms were an ongoing series of political, economic and administrative changes in Burma undertaken by the military-backed government. These reforms included the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest and subsequent dialogues with her, establishment of the Inson huquqlari bo'yicha milliy komissiya, general amnesties of more than 200 political prisoners, institution of new labour laws that allow labour unions and strikes, relaxation of press censorship, and regulations of currency practices.

As a consequence of the reforms, ASEAN approved Burma's bid for the chairmanship in 2014. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari davlat kotibi Hillari Klinton visited Burma on 1 December 2011, to encourage further progress; it was the first visit by a US Secretary of State in more than fifty years. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Prezidenti Barak Obama visited one year later, becoming the first US president to visit the country.

Suu Kyi's party, the National League for Democracy, participated in qo'shimcha saylovlar held on 1 April 2012 after the government abolished laws that led to the NLD's boycott of the 2010 yilgi umumiy saylov. She led the NLD in winning the by-elections in a landslide, winning 41 out of 44 of the contested seats, with Suu Kyi herself winning a seat representing Kavhmu Constituency in the pastki uy ning Burmese Parliament.

2015 yilgi saylov results gave the Demokratiya uchun milliy liga an mutlaq ko'pchilik of seats in both chambers of the Burmese parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become Prezident, while NLD leader Aun San Su Chi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.^[59] However, clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups davom etdi.

2016 yil - hozirgi kunga qadar

The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016 and, on 15 March 2016, Xtin Kyaw was elected as the first non-military president of the country since the Military coup of 1962.^[60][61] Aun San Su Chi assumed the newly created role of the Davlat maslahatchisi, a position similar to Prime Minister, on 6 April 2016.

The resounding victory of Aun San Su Chi 's National League for Democracy in 2015 general elections has raised hope for a successful transition of Myanma from a closely held harbiy rule to a free demokratik tizim. However, internal political turmoil, crumbling iqtisodiyot va etnik strife continue to make the transition to demokratiya a painful one. The 2017 murder of Ko Ni, a prominent Muslim lawyer and a key member of Myanma "Demokratiya uchun milliy liga" partiyasini boshqarishi mamlakatning zaif tomoniga jiddiy zarba sifatida qaralmoqda demokratiya. Janob Ko Ni qotillik mahrum qilindi Aun San Su Chi uning maslahatchisi sifatida, ayniqsa isloh qilish nuqtai nazaridan Myanma Harbiy tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan Konstitutsiya va mamlakatni joriy etish demokratiya.^[62][63][64]

Shuningdek qarang

• Osiyo tarixi
• Birma monarxlari ro'yxati
  • Birma monarxlarining shajarasi
• Birma prezidentlarining ro'yxati
• Birma siyosati
• Birma bosh vaziri
• Birma tarixining xronologiyasi

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar va qo'shimcha o'qish

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• Jigarrang, Yan. Yigirmanchi asrda Birma iqtisodiyoti (Kembrij universiteti matbuoti, 2013) 229 bet. http://eh.net/book-reviews saytidagi onlayn ko'rib chiqish
• Kallaxan, Meri (2003). Dushmanlar qilish: Birmadagi urush va davlat qurilishi. Itaka: Kornell universiteti matbuoti.
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Tarixnoma

• Englehart, Nil A. "Liberal Leviyatanmi yoki Imperial Outpostmi? J. S. Furnivall Birmadagi mustamlaka hukmronligi to'g'risida", Zamonaviy Osiyo tadqiqotlari (2011) 45 # 4 pp. 759-790.

Tashqi havolalar

• Tarixchi tomonidan Birma / Myanma tarixi to'g'risida ingliz va Myanma tilidagi veb-loyiha Thant Myint-U va Myanmadagi veb-dizaynerlar
• Faktfile: Birmaning qatag'on tarixi
• Vashington universiteti Birma tarixchilari Tan Tun, Yi Yi, U Pe Maung Tin, Ba Shinning kutubxona hujjatlari
• SOAS Birma byulleteni Birma tarixiga bag'ishlangan tadqiqot maqolalari
• Butparastning kelib chiqishi Bob Xadson tomonidan
• XVI-XIX asrlarda Birma davlatlarining o'sishi va rivojlanishidan ko'rinib turganidek, Birma va Siam o'rtasidagi ziddiyatning o'zgaruvchan tabiati Pamaree Surakiat, Osiyo tadqiqot instituti, Singapur, 2006 yil mart
• Onlayn Birma / Myanma kutubxonasi ma'lumotlarning haqiqiy koni
• Qon to'kilgan yo'l: Birmaning mustaqillikka ilk sayohati BBC Birma, 2005 yil 30 sentyabr, 2006-10-28 da olingan
• Nu-Attle shartnomasi va Ya-Freeman shartnomasi, 1947 yil Onlayn Birma / Myanma kutubxonasi
• Birmadagi federalizm Onlayn Birma / Myanma kutubxonasi
• Birma Kommunistik partiyasining davlat hokimiyatini o'z zimmasiga olishga qaratilgan fitnasi va unga tegishli ma'lumotlar Onlayn Birma / Myanma kutubxonasi
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• Birmaning SPDC Generals-ni tushunish Mizzima, 2006-10-31 da olingan
• O'zgargan yurtdagi musofirlar Taliya Isaak, Irravaddi, 2001 yil mart-aprel, 2006-10-29 da olingan
• Yangi imperiyani ko'ring Aung Zav,Irravaddi, 2006 yil oktyabr, olindi 2006-10-19
• Daewoo - Birma rejimining ketma-ket da'vogari Kliv Parker, Irravaddi, 2006 yil 7-dekabr, olindi 2006-12-08
• Qahramonlar va yovuzlar Irravaddi, 2007 yil mart
• Sher shahar nolasi Kyaw Zva Moe, Irravaddi, 2007 yil mart
• Samon vodiysidagi Pyu vatani Bob Xadson 2005 yil
• O'z tarixchilari aytgan Hindiston tarixi. Muhammadiy davri; ser H. M. Elliot tomonidan; John Dowson tomonidan tahrirlangan; London Trubner kompaniyasi 1867–1877. Packard Gumanitar Instituti, Forscha matnlar tarjimada.
• http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7543347.stm 1988 yilgi qo'zg'olon bunga loyiq edimi?