Rim davridagi Tunis tarixi - History of Roman-era Tunisia

Qismi bir qator ustida
Tarixi Tunis
Tarixdan oldingi Tarix
Qadimgi Karfagen Miloddan avvalgi 12-C. - 146 yil 1-Rim (Viloyat ) Miloddan avvalgi 146 - 435 yillar Vandal 435–534 2-rim (Vizantiya) 534–698 Prefektura 534–590 Exarchate 590–698
Dastlabki islom Umaviy 698–750 Abbosiy 750–800 Aglabid 800–909 Fotimid 909–973
O'rta asrlar Zirid 973–1148 Norman 1148–1160 Almohad 1160–1229 Xafsid 1229–1574
Erta zamonaviy Usmonli 1574–1705 Husaynid 1705–1881
Zamonaviy Frantsiya Tunisi 1881–1956 Tunis qirolligi 1956–1957 Burguiba qoidasi 1957–1987 Ben Ali to'ntarishi 1987 Ben Ali hukmronlik qiladi 1987–2011 Tunis inqilobi 2011 Parlament tizimi 2011–hozirgi
Afrika portali •  Tarix portali

Rim davridagi Tunis

The Rim davridagi Tunis tarixi Rim tarixi bilan boshlanadi Afrika viloyati. Keyin Rim Karfagen ustidan nazoratni o'z qo'liga oldi Uchinchi Punik urushi (149–146). Bir davr bor edi Berber shohlari Rim bilan ittifoqdosh. Karfagen atrofidagi erlar ilova qilindi va qayta tashkil qilindi va Karfagen shahri qayta qurilib, imperiyaning uchinchi shahri bo'ldi. Uzoq farovonlik davri boshlandi; kosmopolit madaniyat rivojlandi. Savdo tezlashdi, dalalar o'z mevalarini berdi. Lotin tilida so'zlashadigan etnik aralashmani tashkil etib, bu erga imperiya bo'ylab ko'chib kelganlar ko'chib kelishdi. Karfagen jamiyatida mahalliy finikiyzabon liviyaliklar (berberlar) va finikiyaliklar hamda berberzabon liviyaliklar tashkil topgan bo'lib, ba'zi mahalliy liviyaliklar kabi Apuleius va Septimus Severus Rim imperiyasining buyuk arboblariga aylandi. Xristianlik asta-sekin shimoliy-g'arbiy afrikaliklar orasida tarqalib, Rim katolikchiligiga uning uchta papasini ham taklif qildi Gipponing avgustinasi. Rim imperiyasining tutilishi paytida bir necha taniqli liviyaliklar isyon ko'tarishdi. Bir avlod o'tib german qabilasi bo'lgan Vandallar kirib keldi Tunis Maurii (Shimoliy-G'arbiy Afrikadagi liviyaliklar) yordamida va Rim viloyatida bir asrga yaqin hukmronlik qildi. Sobiq Rim Afrikasidagi Vandallar hukmronligi davrida bir necha Liviya (berberlar) qo'zg'olonlari yuz berdi, ba'zilari o'zlarini ajratib oldilar va atrofda o'z-o'zini boshqarish tizimini o'rnatdilar. Vizantiya imperiyasi, oxir-oqibat, Vandallar hududini 534 yilda o'z hukmronligiga qaytarib oldi va bu islomiy istiloga qadar davom etdi, 705 yilda yakunlandi. So'ngra qadimgi Karfagenning so'nggi bekor qilinishi boshlandi.^[1][2]

Afrikaning Rim viloyati

Rim imperiyasi, uning imperatori Trajan (98–117 yy.) Boshchiligida, 117 yilda. Numidiya qo'shilishi bilan viloyat vujudga keldi. Afrika Proconsularis.

Keyingi Karfagenning mag'lubiyati ichida Uchinchi Punik urushi (149–146), Rim Respublikasi boy va rivojlangan qishloq xo'jaligi erlarini o'z ichiga olgan shahar va uning atrofini qo'shib oldi; ularning uzoq yillik Berberi ittifoqchisi Massinissa shahar qulashidan sal oldin vafot etgan edi.

Ushbu mintaqa Rimga aylandi Afrika viloyati, Lotinlar uchun Berbers nomini olgan Afri mahalliy so'z sifatida mintaqaning Berber odamlari.^[3][4]

G'arbdagi qo'shni erlar ularning Berber ittifoqchilariga berilib, ular mustaqil Berber shohliklari sifatida tan olinishda davom etishdi.^[5] Avvaliga eski shahar Utica, vayron bo'lgan Karfagenning shimolida, viloyat markazi bo'lib xizmat qilgan; oxir-oqibat Karfagen qayta tiklandi.

Keyinchalik Afrika viloyati zamonaviy Tunisning shimoliy yarmini, unga qo'shni mintaqani qamrab olishga keldi Jazoir (ya'ni qadimgi barcha Numidiya ), shuningdek, sharqqa (zamonaviyga) qariyb 400 km cho'zilgan qirg'oq mintaqalari Liviya ), keyin ma'lum bo'lgan Tripolitaniya.^[6]

Uyg'onish va farovonlik

Karfagen shahri

Karfagen shahrining kuldan ko'tarilishi ostida boshlandi Yuliy Tsezar (Miloddan avvalgi 100F44) va ostida davom etgan Avgust (Miloddan avvalgi 63 - milodiy 14), yomon xabarlarga qaramay. Bu yangi poytaxtga aylandi Afrika viloyati. Shaharda yashovchi Rim edi pretor yoki prokuror. Karfagen Rim Afrikaning shahar markazi sifatida nafaqat tiklandi, balki gullab-yashnadi, ayniqsa 1, 2 va 3 asrlarda.^[7][8] Shunga qaramay, aholining qariyb oltidan bir qismi shahar hayoti madaniyatida to'liq ishtirok etishi mumkin edi, chunki "qolgan beshdan oltitasi qashshoqlikda yashagan, ba'zan juda qiyin va qochib qutulish deyarli imkonsiz bo'lgan". Shunga qaramay, termal vannalar kabi jamoat binolari va joylari mavjud edi. "Kambag'al odam arzimagan pul evaziga ajoyib marmar zallarni, eng yaxshi san'at va eng yoqimli atmosferani o'rab olardi".^[9]

Rim Karfagen, asosiy fuqarolik institutlarini namoyish etadi.

Shahar kengayib borishi bilan qurilish sanoati mahalliy materiallarga, marmar va turli xil o'rmonlarga murojaat qildi. Afrika viloyati yaxshi tanilgan mozaika, uning hunarmandlari tomonidan ishlangan, ham dekorativ, ham vakillik dizaynidan. Karfagen ichida va shu qatorda topilgan villalar qishloqning ko'plab yirik mozaikalari hovli va verandalarning pollarini tashkil qilgan.^[10] Shahardan tashqarida, avval mavjud bo'lgan ko'plab Punik va Berber shaharlari yangi kuch va farovonlikka erishdilar. Ko'plab yangi aholi punktlari, ayniqsa boy va serhosil Bagradalarda (zamonaviy.) Barpo etildi Medjerda ) daryo vodiysi, Karfagenning shimoliy va shimoli-g'arbiy qismida joylashgan.^[11] An suv o'tkazgich taxminan 120 km. uzunligi, imperator tomonidan qurilgan Hadrian (117-138 yy.), muqaddas joydan Jbel Zaghouan quruqligidan 70 km uzoqlikda sayohat qiladi. qadimgi Karfagenga. U XIII asrda va yana zamonaviy zamonda ta'mirlanib foydalanishga topshirilgan.^[12][13]

Karfagen va Rim Afrikasining boshqa shaharlarida mashhur tomoshalarga bag'ishlangan xarobalar yoki yirik inshootlarning qoldiqlari mavjud. U erda o'tkazilgan shahar o'yinlari shafqatsiz qon sportlarini o'z ichiga olgan, bilan gladiatorlar olomonning xohishi uchun yovvoyi hayvonlar yoki bir-biri bilan kurashgan. The Telegenii mintaqaning gladiatorlar uyushmalaridan biri edi. Garchi ko'pincha kamtar kelib chiqishi bo'lsa-da, chiroyli, omon qolgan gladiator "tomoshabinlarning yosh xonimlari tomonidan maqtovga loyiq kishi deb hisoblanishi mumkin".^[14]

Yana bir shahar ko'ngil ochish teatr edi. Taniqli Yunoniston fojialari va komediyalar, shuningdek, zamonaviy Rim o'yinlari sahnalashtirildi. Burleskning chiqishlari mim mashhur edi. Ko'proq qimmatroq va kamroq odobsiz bo'lgan spektakllar ishtirok etdi pantomimalar.^[15] Afrikalik yozuvchi Apuleius (c. 125 - c. 185) ta'sirli va yoqimli deb topilgan bunday spektaklda qatnashishni tasvirlaydi. Qadimgi epitefiya Bu erda mashhur pantomima Vinsentiyni nishonlamoqda (qisman keltirilgan):

U odamlarning fikrlarida abadiy yashaydi ... adolatli, yaxshi va har bir inson bilan bo'lgan har qanday munosabatda beg'ubor va ishonchli. Uning taniqli asarlarini raqsga tushirish paytida butun teatr yulduzlarga etib boradigan darajada asirga olinmagan bir kun ham bo'lmagan ".^[16]

Karfagen va Afrika viloyatiga tinchlik va farovonlik keldi. Oxir oqibat Rim xavfsizlik kuchlari mahalliy aholidan tortila boshladi. Bu erda rimliklar etarlicha yaxshi boshqarar edilar, chunki viloyat Imperiya iqtisodiyoti va madaniyatiga qo'shilib, muhojirlarni jalb qildi. Uning kosmopolit, lotinlashtiruvchi va xilma-xil aholisi yuqori turmush darajasi bilan obro'ga ega edi. Karfagen yirik imperatorlik shaharlari tepasida, faqat orqada paydo bo'ldi Iskandariya va Rim.^[8][17]

Qishloq xo'jaligi erlari

Rim Karfagen erlarini qulaganidan keyin (miloddan avvalgi 146 y.) "Qattiq ushlab turdi", ammo buni avvaliga urush sabab bo'lgan "buzuqlik" tufayli, ya'ni hosilni rivojlantirish va o'zlariga foyda olish uchun, boshqalarni chetlab o'tishdan ko'ra.^[18] Mag'lub bo'lgan shaharning ko'plab Punik omon qolganlari, shu jumladan egalari zaytun bog'lari, uzumzorlar va fermer xo'jaliklari, "orqa tomonga qochib ketgan".^[19]

Jamoat erlari (ager publicustomonidan Rimga o'tdi zabt etish huquqi va ko'plab xususiy erlar, vayron qilingan yoki boshqacha tarzda tashlab yuborilgan yoki to'lanmagan soliqlarga ega bo'lgan yoki boshqa yo'llar bilan. Berber tomonidan faqat mavsumiy ravishda ishlatilgan ba'zi qishloq erlari qishloq xo'jaligi uchun yaxshi yaylovchilar, shuningdek, ekish uchun olingan va tarqatilgan. Shunga ko'ra, ko'plab ko'chmanchilar (va mayda dehqonlar ham) "qashshoqlikka tushib qolishgan yoki dasht va cho'lga haydashgan". Takfarinalar boshchiligidagi a barqaror Berber qo'zg'oloni (17-24) Rimga qarshi; hali bu qishloq qabilaviy kuchlari mag'lubiyatga uchrashdi. Keyinchalik viloyat yerlarida dehqonchilik ishlari kengayib, yuqori hosil olib keldi. Shunga qaramay, Rim "hech qachon janubiy va g'arbiy ko'chmanchilarni doimiy ravishda ushlab turishga muvaffaq bo'lmadi".^[20][21]

Buyuk mulklar sarmoyadorlar yoki siyosiy tarafdorlar yoki musodara qilingan erlardan imperatorlar tomonidan shakllantirildi. Qo'ng'iroq qilindi latifundiya, ularning dehqonchilik ishlari ijaraga berildi koloni ko'pincha Italiyadan, u egasining "asosiy uyi" atrofida joylashib olgan va shu tariqa kichik agrar shaharni tashkil qilgan. Er "bo'ylab 710 metr o'lchamdagi kvadratchalar" ga bo'lingan. Shunday qilib, ko'plab kichik fermer xo'jaliklari kelayotgan Rim fuqarolari yoki armiya faxriylari tomonidan boshqarilardi pagi ), shuningdek, Punic va Berberning oldingi egalari tomonidan. Katta va sifatli villalar Afrika provinsiyasida shu davrdan boshlab topilgan qulay sharoitlar va boshqa fermer xo'jaliklari uy-joylari qishloq xo'jaligi natijasida hosil bo'lgan boylikni uyg'otmoqda. Yerni mevalari uchun ishlash juda foydali bo'ldi.^[22][23]

Boy qishloq xo'jaligi erlari viloyatni katta farovonlikka olib keldi.^[24] Yangi gidrotexnika inshootlari kengayish va intensivlikni oshirdi sug'orish. Zaytun va uzum uzoq vaqtdan beri ommalashib kelayotgan mashhur mahsulotlardir; ammo, uzumzorlar va bog'lar so'nggi Punik urushi paytida vayron qilingan edi; Shuningdek, ular qasddan vayronaga aylandilar, chunki ularning mahsulotlari Rim Italiya mahsulotlari bilan raqobatlashdi. Buning o'rniga Afrika viloyati shuhrat qozondi, asosan Rimga eksport qilinadigan, ko'p miqdordagi mayda bug'doyning manbai. Qadimgi yozuvchilar Strabon (Miloddan avvalgi 64 - milodiy 21), Pliniy (Milodiy 23 - mil. 79) va Jozefus (37 - 95 yillarda) Afrika bug'doyining sifatiga yuqori baho bergan. The Baradas daryo vodiysi Nil singari unumdorlikka sazovor bo'ldi. Keyinchalik, Misr Rimning bug'doy etkazib beruvchisi sifatida Afrika viloyatini siqib chiqara boshlaganda, uzum va zaytun yana 1-asrning oxirlarida viloyat dalalarida yana paydo bo'la boshladi. Avgustin (354-430) Afrikada zaytun moyi yoqilgan lampalar tun bo'yi yaxshi yonib, mahallalar ustiga nur sochgan deb yozgan.^[25][26][27]

Artefaktlardan va katta villalarning ko'pincha katta mozaikalaridan olingan dalillar shuni ko'rsatadiki, agrar elitaning sevimli sport turlaridan biri ov. Yaxshi kiyingan sportchilar tasvirlangan (yupqa yengli kashtali velosipedda). Ular otga minib, tasviriy o'yinni ta'qib qilish uchun krosga borishadi - ehtimol bu erda a shoqol. Turli xil yovvoyi qushlar, shuningdek, tuzoqlarni olish uchun kerakli o'lja sifatida namoyish etiladi. Veranda tagida, it iti mozaikasi bo'ylab quyonni ta'qib qilayotganga o'xshaydi.^[28]

Savdo va savdo

A. Mozaikasi Rim triremasi, ehtimol Afrika viloyatidan.

Seramika va sopol idishlar Oldingi Finikiyadan kelib chiqqan shahar madaniyati davrida ko'p asrlar davomida ishlab chiqilgan va amalda bo'lgan ko'nikmalar muhim sanoat sifatida davom etdi,^[29] Ikkalasi ham yog 'lampalari va amforalar (ikkita tutqichli idishlar) miqdorida ishlab chiqarilgan. Ushbu sopol idishlar, albatta, mahalliy zaytun moyini ishlab chiqarishni to'ldirdi, amforalar nafaqat qattiq mol sifatida qimmatli, balki mahalliy neftni tashishda va kema orqali eksport qilishda ham foydali edi. Yig'ilgan zaytundan pishirish va ovqat uchun moylarni va lampalarda yoqish uchun moylarni ishlab chiqaradigan ko'plab qadimiy moy presslari topilgan. Keramika, shuningdek, o'sha davrdagi mintaqaviy qabristonlarda mo'l-ko'l topilgan hayvonlar, odamlar va xudolarning turli haykalchalarida ishlangan. Keyinchalik, terra-kotta cherkovlar uchun Injil sahnalarini aks ettiruvchi plakatlar ishlab chiqilgan va qilingan. Ushbu sanoatning katta qismi Tunisning markazida, masalan, Thysdrus va uning atrofida joylashgan (zamonaviy El-Djem ), unchalik unumdor bo'lmagan qishloq xo'jaligi erlari bo'lgan, ammo boy loy konlari ko'p bo'lgan quruqroq hudud.^[30][31][32]

Ko'p miqdordagi bug'doyni, so'ngra zaytun moylarini va vinolarni eksport qilish, kerakli port imkoniyatlari (boshqalar qatorida) quyidagilar: Hippo Regius (zamonaviy Annaba ), Gippo ich ketishi (zamonaviy Bizerte ), Utica, Karfagen, Curubis (zamonaviy shimol Nabul ), Missis, Hadrumentum, Gummi va Sullectum (ikkalasi ham zamonaviyga yaqin) Mahdia ), Gaytis (yaqin Jerba orol) va Sabrata (zamonaviy yaqinida Tarabulus [Tripoli]). Marmar va yog'och tashqariga jo'natildi Tabraka (zamonaviy Tabarka ).^[33] Eksport jo'natmasi bilan shug'ullanadigan qadimiy uyushmalar tuzilishi mumkin navikularii, hali davlat imtiyozlari berilgan tovarlarga jamoaviy javobgar. Ichki savdo olib borildi Rim yo'llari, ikkalasi uchun ham qurilgan Rim legionlari tijorat va xususiy foydalanish uchun. Karfagendan janubi-g'arbiy tomon katta yo'l Theveste (zamonaviy Tébessa ) tog'larda; u erdan janubi-sharqga Tacapesga olib boradigan yo'l (zamonaviy Gabes ) qirg'oqda. Yo'llar ham qirg'oq chizig'idan o'tib ketdi. Savdogarlar tovarlarga va boshqa sayohatchilarga qulay bo'lishi uchun bunday magistral yo'llar bo'ylab binolar vaqti-vaqti bilan qurilgan.^[34]

Afrika viloyatining boshqa mahsulotlari jo'natildi. Karfagendagi qadimgi sanoat O'rta dengizni pishirish bilan shug'ullangan ziravor deb nomlangan garum, o'tlar bilan tayyorlangan baliq sousi, bardoshli mashhurlik. Gilam va jun kiyimlar, charm buyumlar to'qilgan. Qirol binafsha bo'yoq, mureks, birinchi bo'lib Finikiyaliklar tomonidan kashf etilgan va mashhur bo'lgan, mahalliy ishlab chiqarilgan. Marmar va yog'och, shuningdek jonli xachirlar ham muhim eksport buyumlari bo'lgan.^[35]

Mahalliy savdo va tijorat amalga oshirildi mundinalar (yarmarkalar) qishloq markazlarida haftaning belgilangan kunlarida, bugungi kunda bo'lgani kabi souks. Qishloq va shaharlarda macella (ta'minot bozorlari) tashkil etildi. Nizom berilgan shaharlarda bozor munitsipalitet tomonidan tartibga solinardi yashovchilar (Rim respublikasi bilan uchrashgan Rim bozori rasmiylari), sotuvchining asboblarini o'lchash va tortish uchun tekshirgan. Shahar savdosi ko'pincha forumda yoki yopiq joylarda joylashgan savdo do'konlarida yoki xususiy do'konlarda amalga oshirildi.^[36]

Ekspeditsiyalar janubga Saharaga qarab yo'l olishdi. Rim gubernatori Kornelius Balbus, keyinchalik Utikada, miloddan avvalgi 19 yilda bosib olingan. Gerama, Garamantes cho'l poytaxti Fezzan (endi g'arbiy-markaziy Liviya ).^[37][38] Bu Berber Garamantes O'rta er dengizi bilan uzoq muddatli, oldindan aytib bo'lmaydigan, uzilib bo'lmaydigan aloqalarga ega edi.^[39][40] Rim savdosi va Berber bilan boshqa aloqalar bo'lsa-da Fezzan davom etish, ochish va o'chirish, reyd yoki savdo, sahro bo'ylab, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qattiqroq cho'llarning janubidagi yanada samarali va aholisi ko'p bo'lgan erlarga keng tijorat transporti hali rivojlanmagan edi; ko'p asrlar davomida ham bo'lmaydi.^[41][42]

Salvius Julianus

Shaxsiy misol Imperiyadagi ijtimoiy integratsiya chuqurligi va ko'lamini aks ettiradi, chunki imperatorlik Rim madaniyati poytaxtdan uzoqda yashovchi odamlarga, hech qanday ahamiyatga ega bo'lmagan viloyat shahrida tug'ilganlarga etkazilgan. Rim Afrikasining 2-asridan favqulodda martaba bilan shug'ullanadigan advokat Julian paydo bo'ldi.

Julianning hayoti iste'dodli viloyatlarda mavjud imkoniyatlarni namoyish etadi. Shuningdek, bu Rim qonuni haqida ma'lumot beradi, uning tuzilishi imperiyaning turli millatlarini birlashtirgan tuzilmaning katta qismini yaratgan. Aftidan Julian Afrika viloyatida asta-sekin tashkil topgan Lotin madaniyati oilasidan chiqqan, ammo uning yoshligi va dastlabki faoliyati yozilmagan.

Senatus Populusque Romanus.

Salvius Julianus (taxminan 100 - 170 yillarda), Rim huquqshunos, Konsul 148 yilda tug'ilgan Hadrumetum (zamonaviy Sous, Tunis) Afrika provinsiyasining sharqiy qirg'og'ida. U o'qituvchi edi; uning talabalaridan biri, Africanus, nufuzli shaxsning so'nggi qayd etilgan rahbari edi Sabinian Rim huquqshunoslari maktabi.^[43] Rim jamoat hayotida Julian oxir-oqibat uzoq martaba davomida bir nechta yuqori lavozimlarni egalladi. U huquqshunos sifatida zamonaviy katta hurmatga sazovor bo'ldi va zamonaviy eng yaxshi kishilardan biri hisoblanadi Rim huquqiy tarixi. "Uning hayoti vazifasi, birinchi navbatda, farmon qonunini yakuniy mustahkamlashdan; ikkinchidan, uning buyuk shaxsining tarkibidan iborat edi Digest to'qsonta kitobda. "^[44]

Julian imperiyaga o'zining eng yuqori pog'onasida xizmat qildi Counsilium (imperator kengashi) uchta imperator: Hadrian (117-138 r.), Antonius Pius (r. 138–161), va Markus Avreliy (161-180-yillar). Uning hayoti, ayniqsa, davom etdi foydali davr nisbiy tinchlik va farovonlik hukm surgan paytda Rim hukmronligining. Julian shunday edi tribuna; u "barcha muhim narsalarga ega edi senatorlik ofislari Questor ga Konsul ". Keyinchalik, imperatorning konsiliyidagi xizmatidan keyin u jo'nab ketdi Germania Inferior bolmoq uning Rim gubernatori. U xuddi shu lavozimda xizmat qilgan Hispania Citerior. Kariyerasi oxirida Julian bo'ldi Rim gubernatori uning tug'ilganidan Afrika viloyati.^[45][46] Uning tug'ilgan joyi Hadrumetum (zamonaviy zamonaviy) yonidan topilgan yozuv Sous, Tunis) o'zining rasmiy hayoti haqida hikoya qiladi.^[43]

Imperator Hadrian Afrika viloyatidagi kichik bir shaharda tug'ilgan Julianni revizyonga tayinladi Pretor farmoni (bundan keyin Edictum abadiy). Ushbu asosiy huquqiy hujjat, keyinchalik Rim tomonidan har yili chiqarilgan Praetor urbanus, o'sha paytda keng tarqalgan qonuniy hokimiyat edi Rim qonuni. "Respublika huquqshunosligining durdonasi bo'lgan Farmon barqarorlashdi. ... [T] u taniqli huquqshunos Julian pretorianing so'nggi shaklini belgilab oldi va tibbiyot xodimi Farmonlar. "^[47]

Keyinchalik Julian uning muallifi Digesta 90 ta kitobda; bu asar, odatda, imperator farmonida keltirilgan mavzular ketma-ketligiga rioya qilgan va "keng qamrovli to'plamini" taqdim etgan javob haqiqiy va taxminiy holatlar to'g'risida ".^[43][48] Uning maqsadi Digesta butun Rim qonunlarini tushuntirish edi.

6-asrda, bu 2-asr Digesta Salvius Julianusning tuzuvchilari tomonidan yuzlab marotaba ko'chirilgan Pandekta, vakolati ostida yaratilgan Vizantiya imperator Yustinian I (527–265-yillarda). Bu Pandekt (shuningdek,. nomi bilan ham tanilgan Digest, qismi Corpus Juris Civilis ) yuridik tajriba va o'rganish to'plami edi. "Yustinianning kompilyatorlari [Juliannikidan foydalangan deb o'ylashadi Digesta] ularning sxemasi asosida: har holda undan 500 ga yaqin parchalar keltirilgan. "^[49] The PandektSharqiy Rim (Vizantiya) imperiyasining nazorat qonunining bir qismi sifatida rasmiy roulga qo'shimcha ravishda, shuningdek, asosiy manbaga aylandi Rim huquqini o'rta asrlarda o'rganish g'arbiy Evropada.^[50]

Julianning shaxsiy hayoti haqida kam narsa ma'lum. Ko'rinib turibdiki, u Rim imperatorining oilasi bilan biron bir tarzda (ehtimol uning qizi orqali) bog'liq bo'lgan Didius Julianus, 193 yil davomida hukmronlik qilgan.^[51]

Julian, ehtimol Afrika viloyatida, uning Rim hokimi sifatida yoki undan ko'p o'tmay vafot etgan. Bu falsafiy imperator davrida bo'lgan Markus Avreliy (161-180 yil), Julianni a nusxa ko'chirish kabi amicus noster (Lotin: "bizning do'stimiz"). "Vaqt o'tgan sayin uning shuhrati kamaymadi, chunki keyinchalik imperatorlar u haqida eng maqtovli so'zlar bilan gapirishdi. ... Yustinian [VI asr] u haqida huquqshunoslarning eng taniqli vakili sifatida gapiradi ».^[52] "Iulianus bilan, rim huquqshunoslik o'zining apogeyiga yetdi. "^[43]

Lotin madaniyati va berberlar

Assimilyatsiya

Thysdrus amfiteatri (zamonaviy El-Djem ).

Imperiya bo'ylab odamlar Afrika viloyatiga, savdogarlar, savdogarlar, amaldorlarga, eng muhimi, ko'chib ketishni boshladilar faxriylar erta nafaqada, Afrikada harbiy xizmatga va'da qilingan dehqonchilik uchastkalarida joylashdilar. Juda katta Lotin fonida ko'p millatli bo'lgan so'zlashuvchi aholi rivojlandi; ular mintaqani punik va berber tillarida so'zlashadiganlar bilan bo'lishdilar.^[53] Odatda imperiyaning ishi lotin yozuvida olib borilardi, shuning uchun sezilarli ikki yoki uch tilli vaziyat yuzaga keldi.^[54] Imperial xavfsizlik kuchlari mahalliy aholidan, shu jumladan berberlardan tortib olinishni boshladi. Rimliklarga aftidan to'g'ri hukmlar yangradi, bu ularning hukmronligini umumiy qabul qilishni osonlashtirdi.

"Berberlarni Rim turmush tarzini yanada osonroq qabul qilishga undagan narsa - rimliklar, garchi o'z erlarini qo'llari bilan egallab olgan mustamlaka xalqi bo'lsalar-da, irqiy eksklyuzivlikni namoyon qilmaganliklari va ularga nisbatan bag'rikenglik ko'rsatganliklari. Berber diniy kultlari, ular mahalliy yoki bo'lsin karfagenliklardan payvand qilingan. Biroq, Afrikadagi Rim hududiga Rim madaniyati notekis kirib borgan. Rimlashtirilmagan berberlarning cho'ntaklari butun Rim davrida, hattoki Tunisning sharqiy va Numidiya kabi hududlarida ham mavjud edi. "^[55]

Berberlarning ko'pchiligining Rim dunyosiga moslashishi, albatta, ularning to'liq qabul qilinishini anglatmaydi. Ko'pincha kosmopolit madaniy ramzlarning mavjudligi an'anaviy mahalliy urf-odatlar va e'tiqodlar bilan birga yashagan, ya'ni Rim Berberni o'rnini bosmagan, balki shunchaki oldingi Berber madaniyatini kuchaytirgan, ko'pincha Rim sodiqligi vaqtinchalik darajada bo'lgan.^[56]

Lucius Apuleius

Lucius Apuleius Afrika viloyatining Berber muallifi (taxminan 125 - 185 yillarda) innovatsion lotin uslubidan foydalangan holda yozgan. Garchi tez-tez chaqirilsa ham Lucius Apuleius, faqat Apuleius nomi aniq.^[57] U Karfagenning bir qancha lotin tilida so'zlashadigan jamoalarida: professional, adabiyotshunos va butparast dinlarda rivojlana oldi. O'zini ta'riflagan to'liq Berber, "yarim Numidian, yarmi Gaetulian ",^[58] uning kelib chiqishi Bagradasning yuqori qismida joylashgan (zamonaviy Medjerda ) daryo vodiysi, Madaurada (zamonaviy M'Daurouch ). Shaharda ko'pincha nafaqaga chiqqan Rim askarlari, ko'pincha o'zlari Afrikada tug'ilganlar yashagan. Uning otasi yuqori darajadagi viloyat sudyasi bo'lgan ordo sinf. U hali yoshligida otasi vafot etib, unga va akasiga nisbatan katta boylik qoldirgan.^[59]

Uning tadqiqotlari Karfagenda boshlangan va Afinada (falsafa) va Rimda (notiqlik) o'tkazilgan yillarda davom etgan, u erda u qonuniy advokat bo'lib ishlagan. O'rganishni ingichka sharob bilan, ammo teskari ta'sir bilan solishtirganda, Apuleius shunday yozgan: "Qancha ko'p ichsangiz va qoralama qanchalik kuchli bo'lsa, bu sizning qalbingiz manfaati uchun yaxshiroqdir".^[60] Shuningdek, u Kichik Osiyo va Misr. Karfagenga qaytayotganda u qattiq kasal bo'lib qoldi Oea (zamonaviy Tripoli yaqinidagi qadimiy qirg'oq shahri), u erda eski talaba do'sti Pontianusning oilaviy uyida yashagan. Oxir oqibat Apuleius uyning katta, badavlat bevasi va Pontianusning onasi Prudentilaga uylandi. Aftidan nikoh yaxshi edi; Sidonius Apollinaris Prudentilani "erlari o'qiyotgan va mulohaza yuritayotgan paytda chiroqni ushlab turadigan olijanob ayollardan" biri deb atagan.^[61] Shunga qaramay, buzilgan va ochko'z qaynonalar (Apuleusning bunday tavsifi) uni Pontianusni o'ldirganini beixtiyor da'vo qilmoqda; ammo ular Apuleyni nefarius sehridan yangi xotinining mehrini qozonish uchun foydalanganligi uchun javobgarlikka tortishdi. Yaqin atrofdagi sud jarayonida Sabrata Rim prokurori Klavdiy Maksimus rahbarlik qilgan. O'sha paytda o'ttiz yoshga kirgan Apuleus o'zining himoyasida sinov nutqini tayyorladi, bu esa yozma ravishda uni beradi Kechirim;^[62] aftidan u oqlandi.^[63] Taniqli zamonaviy tanqidchi o'zining notiqligini, xuddi u kabi ko'rinib turganidek xarakterlaydi Uzr:

"Biz nutq davomida yuqori darajadagi nafosat va madaniyatni namoyish etishdan juda mamnunmiz. U qanday qilib Oeaning boy fuqarolarini bir muncha vaqt hayratga solganini va u qanday qilib tez orada qanday qilib chuqur shubha va dushmanlik qo'zg'atishini ko'rayapmiz. Ayniqsa, bir kishi U sehrgarlikni ayblash to'g'risida ikkiga bo'lingan fikrda, u haqiqiy ayblovlarni xo'rlangan nafrat ohangida ko'rib chiqadi, ammo dunyoning eng buyuk sehrgarlaridan biri sifatida qarashga qarshi emas. "^[64]

Keyinchalik Apuleius va Prudentilla Karfagenga ko'chib o'tdilar. U erda u lotin yozuvini davom ettirdi, yunon falsafasi, notiqlik va notiqlik, shuningdek, fantastika va she'riyat bilan shug'ullangan. Muhim izdoshlarni jalb qilib, uning sharafiga bir nechta fuqarolik haykallari o'rnatildi.^[65] U jamoat oldida yorqin so'zlarni "mashhur faylasuf yoki" sofist "sifatida ko'rsatdi, bu milodiy ikkinchi asrga xosdir. U bunday suhbatdoshlarni shoirlardan yuqori darajaga ko'targan va ularni hurmat va pul bilan katta mukofotlagan ...". "U yozuvchi va" sofist ", huquqshunos va ma'ruzachi, shoir va tashabbuskor edi. Uni sehrgarlikda ayblashlari ajablanarli emas ..."^[66]

Apuleiusning eskizlari

Uning taniqli badiiy asari Metamorfozalar, odatda, zamonaviylar tomonidan Oltin eshak.^[67][68][69] Apuleius taniqli asarida bu erda shaharcha, ixtirochi, qo'pol, g'ayrioddiy, afsonaviy hikoya, xuddi shunday ertak qadimiy dunyo.^[70][71] Yunonistonda syujet qahramon, a malhami bilan tajriba o'tkazayotganda sodir bo'ladi sehrgar, boyqushga (maqsadga muvofiq) emas, balki eshakka o'zgartirilgan.^[72][73] Keyinchalik uning nutq qobiliyati uni tark etadi, lekin u boshqalarning nutqini tushunishga qodir. Mashhur digressda (ko'plardan biri), taniqli folklor Cupid va Psyche kron tomonidan badiiy tarzda aytilgan. U erda Cupid, Rim ma'budasining o'g'li Venera, Kupidning onasi o'zining sevgisi tufayli jinni bo'lgan go'zal, ammo o'lik qizni sevib qoladi; xudo Yupiter ularning dilemmasini hal qiladi. Eshakka o'xshagan qahramon voqeani aytib berishni tinglaydi.^[74][75] U komediya, shafqatsizlik, og'ir ishni og'ir hayvon sifatida topadigan juda ko'p sarguzashtlardan so'ng,^[76] sirkga o'xshash ko'rgazma, xavf va muhabbat sherigi, qahramon nihoyat atirgullarni iste'mol qilish orqali inson qiyofasini tiklashga muvaffaq bo'ldi. Isis, Misr ma'budasi, uning iltimoslariga javoban, ruhoniylarni unga gullarni boqish uchun kortej paytida yo'naltiradi. "Darhol mening xunuk va hayvonlarcha qiyofam meni tark etdi. Mening qo'pol sochlarim yupqalanib yiqilib tushdi; ulkan qornim ichkariga cho'kdi; tuyoqlarim barmoqlarim va oyoq barmoqlarim orasiga ajraldi; qo'llarim oyoq bo'lmay qoldi ... va dumim ... shunchaki g'oyib bo'ldi. . "^[77] So'nggi bir necha sahifada qahramon Isisning diniy xizmatiga tashabbuslar bilan kirib, kortejni kuzatishda davom etmoqda Osiris ning Misr panteoni.

Metamorfozalar bilan taqqoslanadi Jek Lindsay yana ikkita qadimiy badiiy asarga: Satirikon tomonidan Petronius va Dafnis va Xlo tomonidan Longus. U shuningdek, oxirida ta'kidlaydi Metamorfozalar "biz qadimgi butparastlikning tarafdori qoldirgan diniy tajribaning yagona to'liq guvohligini topamiz ... sirli kultlarga, qutqaruvchi xudolarga sig'inuvchilarga ...".^[78] H. J. Rose "bu voqea diniy saboq berish uchun mo'ljallangan: Isis [qahramonni] bu dunyodagi behuda narsalardan qutqaradi, chunki u odamlarni hayvondan ham qadrliroq qilmaydi, bu erda va oxiratda baxtli xizmat hayotiga."^[79] Apuleiusning romani haqida Maykl Grant "sirli dinlarga bo'lgan ekstatik e'tiqod [bu erda, Isis], ma'lum ma'noda, davlat-butparastlik va Xristianlik o'rtasidagi o'tishni belgilab qo'ygan" degan fikrni bildiradi. Shunga qaramay, u "xristian otalar uzoq munozaralardan so'ng, Apuleiusning foydasiga tushishiga yo'l qo'yishga qaror qilishdi", deb ta'kidlamoqda.^[80]

Avgustin uning do'sti afrikalik Apuleiusni eslaydi Xudoning shahri.^[81] Apuleiusning yoshi bo'lganida, Avgustin boshqa joyda qaror qilmaydi damnabilis curiositas.^[82] Muhokamada Suqrot va Aflotun "xudolarning, havodor ruhlarning va odamlarning ruhi to'g'risida" Avgustin "Madaura platonisti" Apuleus va uning asariga ishora qiladi De Deo Sokratis^{[doimiy o'lik havola ]} [Suqrotning xudosi].^[83] Avgustin, dunyo shaytonning hukmronligi ostida bo'lgan degan fikrda,^[84][85] butparastlarning ma'lum xudolarga bo'lgan ehtiromlariga qarshi chiqdi. U bu xudolarning hikoyalarida axloqiy chalkashlik yoki yomonroq deb topgan narsalarga murojaat qilib,^[86] va ularning havodor ruhlari Avgustin Apuleiusning kitobi uchun yaxshiroq nom berishni taklif qiladi: "u buni chaqirishi kerak edi De Daemone Socratis, uning shaytonidan. "^[87]

Apuleiusning sehr-jodu qilgani uning ko'plab zamondoshlari tomonidan keng qabul qilingan; uni ba'zan taqqoslashardi Tyana Apollonius (97-yilda vafot etgan), sehrgar (keyinchalik uni ba'zi butparastlar Masihga teng keladigan mo''jiza yaratuvchisi deb da'vo qilishgan). Apuleiusning o'zi sirli dinlarga, xususan, dinga sig'inishga jalb qilingan Isis.^[88] "U ofisni egallagan sacerdos prouinciae Karfagenda. "^[89] "Har qanday holatda ham Apuleus nasroniylar uchun eng munozarali shaxsga aylandi."^[90]

Apuleius a dan foydalangan Lotin sifatida ro'yxatdan o'tgan uslub elocutio novella ("yangi nutq") uning adabiy zamondoshlariga. Ushbu uslub tabiiy ravishda o'rnatilgan arxaizmlar bilan birga o'qimishli odamlar foydalanadigan har kungi tilni ifoda etdi. Keyinchalik rasmiy, klassik grammatikani o'zgartirishga harakat qildi Tsitseron (Miloddan avvalgi 106-43). Kimga ritorikalar ehtimol shunday bo'lar edi Osiyo farqli o'laroq boloxona uslubi.^[91][92][93] Shuningdek yangi nutq zamonaviy zamonaviy rivojlanish yo'nalishini ko'rsatdi Romantik tillar.^[94] Ba'zilar Afrikada uslublar manbasini taklif qilishadi, "uning boy ranglari Punik elementi tufayli ... uning Madauran kelib chiqishi"; Shunga qaramay, Afrikani informatsion deb atash bilan Lindsay buni etarli emas deb e'lon qiladi:

"[W] e o'zining uslubini umuman afrikalik ta'sirga tushira olmaydi. Uning bezakli ixtiro va ritorik ixtirochilikni arxaik va so'zlashuv shakllari bilan aralashtirishi uni o'z davrining odami sifatida belgilaydi, bu erda klassik merosni yaxshi ko'ruvchi o'zgartiradi. yangi kuchlar haqida. "

Kabi iboralaroppido formido"[Men juda qo'rqaman] uning sahifalarini axlatga solish. Apuleiusning nasri - bu ichki qofiyalar va ohangdorlik mozaikasi. Alliteratsiya tez-tez uchraydi. "Yaqin kishining o'limidan so'ng beixtiyor tirik qolgan kishi"invita remansit in vita"." Bu og'zaki hiyla-nayrangning haddan tashqari yoqimli tahlili bo'lib ko'rinishi mumkin; Ammo Apuleiusning ijodiy kuchi aynan shu narsada yashaydi ... ".^[95]

Ijtimoiy qatlamlar

Biroq, Berber Apuleiusning muvaffaqiyati qoidadan ko'ra ko'proq istisno sifatida qabul qilinishi mumkin. Ko'rinib turibdiki, ko'plab mahalliy berberlar provintsiyada faoliyat yuritadigan O'rta er dengizi bo'ylab ta'sir o'tkazib, oxir-oqibat o'zaro turmush qurishgan yoki boshqa yo'l bilan taniqli shaxslar qatoriga kirishgan. Ammo ko'pchilik buni qilmadi. Dan iborat bo'lgan ijtimoiy ierarxiya saqlanib qoldi Rimlashtirilgan, qisman o'zlashtirilgan va assimilyatsiya qilinmagan (bu erda lotin tilini bilmagan ko'plab qishloq berberlari bo'lgan). Shunga qaramay, "o'zlashtirilgan" qatorda imperiyaning boshqa mintaqalaridan kelgan juda kambag'al muhojirlar bo'lishi mumkin. Ushbu imperiya farqlari avvalgi tabaqalanishni qoplaydi iqtisodiy sinflar Masalan, quldorlik amaliyoti davom etdi va boylarning qoldiqlari qoldi Punik zodagonlar.^[96][97]

A-ning jadal sur'atlari va iqtisodiy talablari kosmopolit shahar hayoti qishloq kambag'allari farovonligiga juda salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin. Katta mulk (latifundiya ) eksport qilish uchun naqd paxta hosilini ishlab chiqarganlar, ko'pincha egalar uchun boshqarilgan va foydalanilgan qul mehnati. Ushbu "agrobiznes" operatsiyalari ilgari kichik mahalliy fermerlar tomonidan ishlov berilgan erlarni egallab olgan.^[98] Boshqa bir ijtimoiy interfeysda asosiy kelishmovchilik va ijtimoiy ziddiyatlar uchrashdi pastoral podalari boqilishi kerak bo'lgan ko'chmanchilar va harakatsiz dehqonlar. Eng yaxshi erlar odatda ekish uchun ajratilgan bo'lib, ko'pincha ijtimoiy, siyosiy jihatdan yaxshiroq bog'langan erlarga borar edi. Ushbu iqtisodiy va maqomga bo'linishlar vaqti-vaqti bilan har xil yo'llar bilan namoyon bo'lar edi, masalan, 238 yildagi garov qo'zg'oloni,^[99][100] va radikal, kvazietnik chekka Donatist nizo.^[101][102]

Afrikadan kelgan imperatorlar

Aureus, 193 yilda zarb qilingan: old, Septimius Severus; teskari, XIIII Gemina Martia Victrix-ning Legion nishonlari.

Septimius Severus

Septimius Severus (145–211, r. 193–211) yilda Punik ajdodlari tug'ilgan Lepcis Magna, Tripolitaniya (hozirgi Liviya), u erda yoshligi o'tgan.^[103] Garchi u shimoli-g'arbiy Afrikalik aksent bilan gaplashayotgan bo'lsa-da, u va uning oilasi uzoq vaqt Rim kosmopolit elitasining a'zolari bo'lgan. Uning o'n sakkiz yillik hukmronligi chegara harbiy yurishlari bilan ajralib turardi. Uning xotini Julia Domna ning Emesa, Suriya, u erdagi ruhoniy hukmdorlarning taniqli oilasidan edi; Rimdagi imperatriça sifatida u o'z ichiga olgan salonni yaratdi Ulpian ning Shinalar, Rim huquqining taniqli huquqshunosi.

Severusdan keyin (uning hukmronligi yaxshi ko'rib chiqilgan), uning o'g'li Karakalla (211–217 yillarda) imperator bo'ldi; Karakallaning 212-sonli farmoni imperiyaning barcha erkin aholisiga fuqarolik berdi. Keyinchalik, Severusning ikki jiyani uning rafiqasi Julia Domna orqali imperator bo'ldi: Elagabalus ning qora toshini olib kelgan (218–222 y.) Emesa Rimga; va Severus Aleksandr (222–235-yillar) Livano (Livan) da Kesariyada tug'ilgan. Imperator hech qanday aloqasi bo'lmagan bo'lsa ham Makrinus (217–218 yillarda) Iol Kesariyadan kelgan Mauretaniya (zamonaviy Sharshal, Jazoir).^[104][105]

Gordiani sulolasi

Rim imperatorlari ham bo'lgan Afrika viloyati. 238 yilda mahalliy mulkchilar qo'zg'olon ko'tarib, o'zlarining mijozlarini va kirgan qishloq xo'jaligi ijarachilarini qurollantirdilar Thysdrus (zamonaviy El-Djem) bu erda ular nishonni, tajovuzkor amaldorni va uning soqchilarini o'ldirdilar. Ochiq qo'zg'olonda ular keyinchalik Afrika provinsiyasining keksa gubernatori, hamkasblar deb e'lon qilishdi. Gordian I (taxminan 159-238) va uning o'g'li, Gordian II (192-238). Gordian I Rimda xizmat qilgan Senat va konsul sifatida va turli viloyatlarning gubernatori bo'lgan. Hozirgi imperator juda mashhur emas Maximinus Thrax (Severus sulolasining o'rnini egallagan) o'rtada kampaniya olib borgan Dunay. Rimda Senat Thysdrus qo'zg'olonchilarining tarafini oldi. Afrikadagi qo'zg'olon hali ham imperatorga sodiq bo'lgan mahalliy kuchlarning hujumi ostida qulab tushganda, Senat ularning ikkitasi - Balbinus va Pupienusni ham imperator sifatida sayladi. Keyin Maksimus Traks uning norozi askarlari tomonidan o'ldirildi. Oxir oqibat Gordian I ning nabirasi, Gordian III (225–244), Afrika provinsiyasi, 238–244 yillarda Rimliklarga imperator bo'ldi. U vafot etdi Fors tili chegara. Uning vorisi edi Filipp arab.^[106][107]

Xristianlik va uning bo'linishi

Felicitas va Perpetua

Xorvatiya, Perpetua shahrining mozaikasi

Rim Imperatorlik kulti generalga asoslangan edi shirk uchun hurmatni birlashtirib paterfamilias va uchun ajdod, hukmronlikning ommaviy bayramini ishlab chiqdi Imperator ota va ilohiy rahbar sifatida. Vaqti-vaqti bilan. Ning majburiy namoyishlari sadoqat yoki vatanparvarlik talab qilingan; davlatga sig'inishdan bosh tortganlar alamli o'limga duch kelishlari mumkin.^[108] Mushriklar ozgina ishonch bilan yurishlari mumkin bo'lsa-da, bunday kult Xudoning bag'ishlangan nasroniylik hayotiga zid bo'lib, e'tirof etilgan poydevor asosida bitta uchlik xudo^[109]

Afrika viloyatida suvga cho'mgan ikkita nasroniy, ikkalasi ham yosh ayollar yashagan: Felicitas a xizmatkor Perpetua a olijanob. O'sha paytda Felicitas edi homilador va Perpetua a hamshiralik Ona. Birgalikda arenada ikkalasi ham omma oldida edi yovvoyi hayvonlar tomonidan parchalanib ketgan milodiy 203 yilda Karfagenda. Felicitas va Perpetua nasroniylar orasida mashhur bo'lgan azizlar. Ko'zgularni o'z ichiga olgan hurmatli yozuv tarqaldi vahiylar Perpetua (181-203) dan keyin, ning bayoni shahidlik.^[110][111] Ushbu qo'lyozma Havoriylar tez orada butun imperiya bo'ylab cherkovlarda ovoz chiqarib o'qildi.^[112][113]

Tertullian, Kipriy

Uchta muhim dinshunoslar provintsiyada paydo bo'ldi, ularning barchasi afrikalik ajdodlardan zavqlanishdi: Tertullian, Kipriy, Avgustin.

Tertullian (160-230) Karfagenda tug'ilgan, yashagan va vafot etgan. Rim huquqi bo'yicha mutaxassis,^[114] nasroniylikni qabul qilgan va keyin ruhoniy bo'lgan, uning ilohiyotga oid lotin tilidagi kitoblari bir paytlar keng tanilgan edi. U erta tushunchani bayon qildi Uchbirlik.^[115] Keyinchalik Tertullian, kechirimsiz puritanizmni qo'llab-quvvatladi Montanus va shunday qilib bid'at bilan tugadi.^[116][117]

Avgustin, Botticelli tomonidan (1480).

Sankt-Kipriy (210-258) Karfagen episkopi va shahid bo'lgan. Shuningdek, advokat va dinni o'zgartirgan u Tertullianni ustozi deb bilgan. Kiprianning ko'plab asarlari xushmuomalalik bilan axloqiy maslahat beradi va bugungi kunda o'qiladi. Uning kitobi De Unitat Ecclesiae [Cherkov birligi to'g'risida] (251) ham yaxshi ma'lum bo'ldi. U cherkovning ushbu qarashlarni to'g'rilashini qabul qildi (keyin u bundan voz kechdi): tavba qilgan bid'atchi yangi suvga cho'mishni talab qiladi;^[118] uning yeparxiyadagi episkopi oliy edi.^[119][120]

Gipponing avgustinasi

Avgustin (354–430), Episkop Hippo (zamonaviy Annaba ), Numidiyadagi Tagaste shahrida tug'ilgan (zamonaviy Souk Ahras ). Uning onasi Sent-Monika Berberning merosi meros bo'lib qolgani shubhasiz.^[121] Avgustinning o'zi gapirmadi Berber tili; uning ishlatilishi Punik aniq emas.^{[122][123][124]} Karfagenda Avgustin oliy ma'lumot oldi. Keyinchalik professor Ritorika da Milano (keyin Rim imperatorlik poytaxti), u o'z e'tiqodini ta'qib qildi Manixey ta'limotlar. Uning kuchli konvertatsiyasidan so'ng Nasroniylik va onasi vafot etganidan keyin Ostiya Italiyada Avgustin Afrikaga qaytib keldi. Bu erda u ruhoniy, keyinchalik Gippo episkopi bo'lib xizmat qilgan; as the author of many works, he eventually became a primary influence on subsequent Christian theology.^[125]

Well-versed in the pagan philosophy of the Greco-Roman world, Augustine both criticized its perceived shortcomings, and employed it to articulate the message of Christianity.^[126] Although open to the study and close reading of his fellow African writer, Apuleius (c. 125–185), a pagan thaumaturge, Augustine strongly criticized his understanding of spiritual phenomena.^[127] In a well-known work, Xudoning shahri, Augustine embarks on wide-ranging discussions of Christian theology, and also applies his learned views to history. He harshly criticizes the ancient state religion of Rome, yet frankly admires traditional Roman civic virtues; in fact he opines that their persistent practice found favor with God (unknown in name to them), hence the progress of the Roman cause throughout the Mediterranean. Later he traces the history of Israel as guided by God, and searches out the gospels of Christianity.^[128]

Augustine remains one of the most prominent and most admired of all Xristian dinshunoslari. Uning axloqiy falsafa remains influential, e.g., his contribution to the further evolved doctrine of the Faqat urush, used to test whether or not a military action may be considered moral and ethical.^[129] His books, e.g., Xudoning shahri,^[130] va E'tiroflar,^[131] are still widely read and discussed.^{[132][133][134][135]}

Donatist schism

The Donatist nizo was a major disruption to the church.^[136][137] The schism followed a severe Roman persecution of Christians ordered by the Emperor Diokletian (r. 284–305). An earlier persecution had caused divisions over whether or how to accept back into the church contrite Christians who had apostatized under state threats, abuse, or torture. Then in 313 the new Emperor Konstantin tomonidan Milan farmoni had granted tolerance to Christianity, himself becoming a Christian. This turnabout led to confusion within the Church; in Northwest Africa this accentuated the divide between wealthy urban members aligned with the Empire, and the local rural poor who were salt-of-the-earth believers (which included as well social and political dissidents). In general, agrarian Christian Berbers tended to be Donatists, although more assimilated urban Berbers probably were Catholic.^{[138][139][140]} To this challenge the Church did not respond well. The Donatists became centered in southern Numidiya, the Catholics in Carthage.

One issue was whether a ruhoniy could perform his spiritual office if not personally worthy of the holy sacraments. The Donatist schismatics set up parallel churches in order to practice a ritual purity as a colletive body like ancient Israel,^[141] a purity beyond that required by the Catholic Church.^[142]

Some Donatists sought to become martyrs by provocative acts.^[143] A disorderly, rural extremist group became associated with the Donatists, the circumcellions, who opposed taxes, debt collection, and slavery, and would obstruct normal commerce in order to protect the poor.^{[144][145][146]} The Donatist schism also became later linked to two revolts led by the Berber half-brothers, Firmus (372–375), and then Jildo (395–398).^{[147][148][149]} Episkop sifatida Avgustin came to condemn the Donatists throngs for rioting;^[150] at one time there were Imperial persecutions. Church negotiations lasted about a century until finally the Catholics declared Donatism a bid'at in 405, though general tolerance persisted until the ban became enforced late in the 6th century.^{[151][152][153]}

Berber revolts

Aholi yashash joyi mozaika of Roman-era Tunisia.

The two armed conflicts described below may or may not differ from the revolt of Takfarinalar in 17–24 AD. According to one view, the two conflicts were not class struggles, nor Berber versus Roman insurrections, although containing potential elements of each. More likely the fighting concerned "a sulolaviy kurash pitching one lot of African zodagonlar, with their tribes, against another." Although enjoying maybe "unquestioningly loyal tribesmen on [their] great estates" the nobles themselves held a divided loyalty stemming from their ambivalent role as mediators between Roman Empire elites and local tribal life, mostly rural. Based on subsistence farming, or herding, such tribes remained remote from the literate cities. To their Berber subjects "the nobles offered protection in exchange for o'lpon and military service." Protection promised safety against attacks by another tribe, but also against slave raiders from the cities. The nobles themselves required revenue and the ability to marshall "armed might" on the one hand, and on the other "their fluency in Roman cultural forms and their ability to communicate as equals with the rest of the Roman elita." If so equipped the nobles "occupied key positions in Roman provincial administration." Yet an unexpected shift in status among the nobles might on occasion trigger a desperate resort to arms, an intra-noble dynastic struggle.^[154]

Administrative divisions of the Empire in 395: Afrika yeparxiyasi ochiq ko'k rangda.

Another view holds that the nobles Firmus and Gildo each continued the struggle of the oddiyroq Tacfarinas, that the fight involved class issues and pitted Berber against Roman. In the intervening 350 years the struggle had gone on—hot or cold, or 'underground'. Both Firmus and Gildo enlisted the yo'q qilingan by aligning with the dissenting Donatist churches and its more radical circumcellion harakat. The conflicts were part of the long effort by native agricultural people to reclaim their farming and pasture lands, seized by the Romans as a result of military victories.^[155][156] Professor Laroui differentiates two primary perspectives on Maghriban history of the Roman period, i.e., mustamlaka va liberal. The mustamlaka perspective conforms to the "sulolaviy kurash view" first suggested above; it adopts the interests of Imperial Rome and its clients. The liberal perspective takes the conquered and colonized view, that of the dispossessed farmers and herders, the expropriated natives—former proprietors of the land. Taking this "liberal" view, Laroui sees the conflict here as centuries old, and as more of an ethnic struggle for fairness and justice.^[157]

Firmus (died 375) and Jildo (died 398) were half-brothers, from a family of Berber landowners whose Roman affiliation was recognized by the imperial government at Konstantinopol. Their father Nubel was known as a tartibga solish ("little king") of a Mauri tribe of Berbers,^[158] tarixchining so'zlariga ko'ra Ammianus Marcellinus.^{[159][160][161]} Nubel the father held three positions: influential leader in Berber tribal politics; Roman official with high connections; and, private master of large land holdings. Nubel probably is the same person as Flavius Nubel, the son of a vir perfectissimus va Comes (Roman titles of prestige and authority). Flavius Nubel himself was a commander of Roman cavalry, whose inscription also credits to him the construction of a local Christian church. Six sons of Nubel are listed: Firmus, Sammac, Gildo, Mascezel, Dius, and Mazuc.^[162] In addition to his wife Nonnica, the father Nubel had concubines, "a Christianized version of polygamy." The names of Nubel's children probably indicate an ambivalent cultural strategy, half-imperial, half-tribal, half Roman, half Berber. Gildo from the Libyan root GLD signifies a "ruler" (in modern Berber "Aguelid"). Firmus and Dius derive from Lotin. Sammac and Mascezel are also Berber. A daughter's name Cyria is Yunoncha.^[163]

Firmus

Imperial East-West boundaries at death of Theodosius I (r. 379–395), 'sole' Emperor.^[164]

  G'arbiy Rim imperiyasi

  Sharqiy Rim (Vizantiya) imperiyasi

Sammac became holder of "a fortified estate built up... like a city" whose inhabitants were local Mauri Berbers. An inscription erected by Sammac refers to his endorsement by the tribal Mauris and to his authority conferred by Imperial Rome.^[165] Sammac was a close friend of the Comes ("Count") of Afrika, Romanus; he also enjoyed substantial family connections. Yet by order of his brother Firmus, Sammac was assassinated for unstated reasons (sibling rivalry is suggested). Firmus sought to justify his actions, but Romanus effectively blocked his efforts, and denounced him to higher Roman officials. Cornered, Firmus took up arms. Hence Ammianus Marcellinus calls Firmus perduellis (national enemy), rebellis (insurgent), and latro (brigand); the nearby bishop Gipponing avgustinasi uni chaqiradi rex barbarus (barbarian king).^[166] Tarixchi Gibbon, however, blames a corrupt Romanus for the revolt.^[167]

Firmus gained support for his revolt (372–375) from three of his brothers and from Mauri tribal allies that he through his family could summons to the struggle. Also attracted were the dissendent Donatist Christian churches,^[168] and anti-Roman, anti-taxation sentiment. Evidently Firmus styled himself King of Mavritaniya.^[169] Perhaps he went over to the side of the rural dispossessed and championed their cause. Yet he was opposed by his younger brother Gildo, who remained aligned with Rome. The formidable Comes Teodosius (father of the future Emperor) led a Roman force to Africa against Firmus. The subsequent military campaign, wrote Ammianus, tore at social loyalties, "disrupted the balance of power relationships in the region."^[170] In the fighting that led to the defeat of Firmus, Gildo served the Romans under the Comes Theodosius.^[171][172]

Jildo

Gildo a decade later in 386 became the Comes ning Afrika,^[173] commander of its Roman military forces, the effective leader. Gildo's appointment resulted from his long association with the house of Theodosius, whose son now reigned at Konstantinopol in the east as the Emperor Theodosius I the Great (r. 379–395).^[174] Gildo's daughter Salvina also "had married into the ruling house and into the Constantinopolitan establishment."^[175] The Empire, divided into East and West, endured turbulence. Magnus Maksimus ruled in the West, having overthrown its Emperor Gratian in 383. Then Maximus moved to claim the purple; for a while in 387 he occupied Africa. Theodosius declared Maximus a "usurper" and after invading Italia in 388 he defeated Maximus in battle.^[176] In the meantime in Africa the Comes Gildo had occupied a problematic position during the conflict; his loyalty to Emperor Theodosius was put to the test with questioned but passable results.^[177] In 394 at Milano in Italia Stilicho, yarimVandal Roman general, became regent G'arbning. With Egypt's grain assigned to the East, Italy's main source was Gildo's Africa. Preferring to deal directly with Theodosius at Constantinople, Gildo suggested the "transfer" of Africa to the East, anathema to Stilicho. Stilicho's protagonist Klaudian uning she'rida De bello Gildonico mocked Gildo's disloyalty.^[178]

On the death of Emperor Theodosius I in 395, Gildo "gradually waived his loyalty". His regime drew upon Mauri Berber alliances, and was supportive of Donatist churches (then internally divided, its radicals called circumcelliones ).^[179][180] Gildo in 397 declared his loyalty to the new, weak eastern Emperor.^[181] "Gildo started his rebellion by withholding the shipment of wheat to Rome."^[182] Conflicting evidence may indicate that Gildo "confiscated the imperial lands and distributed them among the circumcelliones and his troops."^[183] Ajablanarlisi shundaki, Gildo's defiance was opposed by his own brother Mascezel, who served Stilicho. Conflict between the two brothers had already become bitter, murderous.^[184] Driven from the field by Stilicho, Gildo failed to escape east by ship and died captive in 398. Mascezel died soon after. Gildo's daughter Salvina raised her children in Konstantinopol at the imperial court, in its Christian community.^[185][186] The Vandallar led by Gaiseric crossed over to Africa in 429.^[187]

These events show a once powerful, 4th-century, Berbero-Roman family in the context of the Mediterranean-wide Empire. "As Roman aristocrats, Nubel's family was not unique in exploiting a local power base in order to play a role at the centre." They also demonstrate the complexities of the loyalties tugging on the Africans of that time and place.^[188] Or, on the other hand, beneath all the political complexity may exist a simpler story of the dispossessed seeking capable leaders to further their struggle for the land.^[189]

Post-Roman successors

Berber states

The Rim imperiyasining tanazzuli in the West was a gradual process punctuated by unheard of events. After eight centuries secure from foreign attack, Rome fell to the Visigoths in 410. By 439 Carthage had been qo'lga olindi by Vandals under Gaiseric (see below).^[190] These changes were traumatic to Roman citizens in Africa Province including, of course, those acculturated Berbers who once enjoyed the prospects for livelihood provided by the long fading, now badly broken Imperial economy.

Yet also other Berbers might see a chance for betterment if not liberation in the wake of Rome's slide toward disorder. Living within the empire in urban poverty or as rural laborers, or living beyond its frontiers as independent yaylovchilar primarily but also as tillers of the soil, were Berbers who might find new political-economic opportunities in Rome's decline, e.g., access to better land and trading terms. The consequent absence of Imperial authority at the periphery soon led to the emergence of new Berber polities. These arose not along the sea coast in the old Imperial cities, but centered inland at the borderland (the ohak ) of empire, between the steppe and the sown. This "pre-Sahara" geographic and cultural zone ran along the mountainous frontier, the Ayting, hill country and upland plains, which separated the "well-watered, Mediterranean districts of the Magreb to the north, from the Sahro cho'l to the south." Here Berber tribal chiefs acted through force and negotiation to establish a new source of governing authority.^[191]

From west to east across Northwest Africa, eight of these new Berbers states have been identified, being the kingdoms of: Altava (hozirgi zamonga yaqin) Tlemsen ); the Ouarsenis (by Tiaret ); Hodna; The Aures (Janubiy Numidiya ); the Nemencha; the Dorsale (at Thala, south of El Kef ); Capsus (at Kapsa ); and, Cabaon (in Tripolitaniya, da Oea ).^[192] The easternmost five of these Berber kingdoms were located within the old Afrika Proconsularis, and all eight were within the now defunct Afrika yeparxiyasi (314–432), Carthage its capital. Alike in situation to the newly formed Germanic kingdoms within the fallen Empire in Europe to the north,^[193] these Berber kingdoms served two disparate populations: the Romani who were "the settled communities of provincial citizens" and the "barbarians", here the Mauri, "Berber tribes along and beyond the frontier". The Romani contributed the urban resources and fiscal structure for which a civil administration was required, while the Mauri provided fruits of the countryside and satisfied essential military and security requirements. This functional and ethnic duality at the core of the Berber successor states is reflected in the title of the political leader at Altava (see here above), one Masuna, found on an inscription: rex gent(ium) Maur(orum) et Romanor(um).^[194] Qirol Masuna of the Mauri and of the Romans must have been, in some perhaps transformed way, similar to Firmus or Gildo (see above).

In the Kingdom of Ouarsenis (by Tiaret ) were built thirteen large funerary monuments known as Djedars, dating to the 5th and 6th centuries, many being square measuring 50 meters on a side and rising 20 meters high. "While their architectural form echoes a long tradition of massive Northwest African royal mausolea, stretching back to Numidian va Mauretiya kingdoms of the 3rd–1st centuries BC, the closest parallels are with the tumuli yoki bazalar, with flanking 'chapels', which are distributed in an arc through the pre-Saharan zone and beyond" perhaps several thousand kilometers to the southwest (to modern Mavritaniya ). Some display "decorative carvings and Christian motifs" although the bilingual dedicatory inscriptions are virtually illegible. "The Djedars could thus be considered the ultimate development of an indigenous, pre-Saharan funerary architectural tradition, adapted to fit a Christian, Romanized environment."^[195]

Yet an unresolved issue concerns the Christianity of independent Berbers after Roman rule, both Catholic and Donatist, i.e., Berber Christianity under the Vandals, Byzantines, and Arabs.^[196] Christianity never completely supplanted the ancient pagan beliefs of Berbers, mixed and augmented by Punic practices and later Greco-Roman. Nor did Christianity among the Berbers attain an enduring unity among its diverse and conflicting believers.^[197]

Under the Byzantines, several Berber political entities proximous to Imperial power became nominal vassal-states pledging loyalty to the Empire, who invested their leaders. A major Imperial concern was, by negotiation and trade, or by show or demonstration of might, to harness the anarchic tendencies of these more rural regimes; otherwise, to withstand any challenge. Roman urban centers, however, survived into the 7th century at Tiaret, Altaya, Tlemsen, and Volubilis, where practicing Christians wrote in Latin. Other Berber polities at the periphery of the settled regions retained their total independence.^[198]

Vandal qirolligi

Migrations of the Vandallar yilda ko'k (c. 270 to 530) from the Vistula river, southeast into Pannoniya, g'arbga qarab Galliya, janubga Ispaniya, across to Africa and Carthage; raids by sea.^[199]

In the 5th century, the western Roman Empire was in a steep decline. A Germanic tribal nation the Vandallar had already trekked across the Empire to Hispania. In 429 under their king Gayzerik (r. 428–477) the Vandals and the Alanlar (their Iranian allies), about 80,000 people, traveled the 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) from Yuliya Tradukta in Andalusia across the straits and east along the coast to Numidiya, west of Carthage. The next year the Vandals besieged the city of Hippo Regius (on the coast of Numidia) while Avgustin within awaited his natural death.^[200] Eventually in 439 the Vandals captured Carthage, which became the center of their Germanic kingdom.^[201]

The western Imperial capital at Ravenna recognized his rule in 442. Yet from Konstantinopol the eastern Empire attempted reconquest several times. At last in 468 a large Byzantine fleet approached Cape Bon by Carthage, and Gaiseric asked for time to consider submission to Imperial demands. When the wind changed Vandal fire ships were scudded into the fleet causing its ruin. After guaranteeing Catholic freedom of worship, Gaiseric entered a peace treaty with the Byzantines in 474, which endured about sixty years.^[202]

"Nothing could have been more unexpected in North Africa than these conquerors of Germanic origin."^[203] Initially many Berbers fought the Vandals as they arrived; after the Vandals' conquest, Berber forces remained the only military threat against them.^[204] Yet in governing their kingdom the Vandals did not maintain in full their martial posture against the Berbers, but made alliances with them in order to secure their occupation of the land. In 455 the Gaiseric sailed with an army to the city of Rim.^[205]

In religious policy, the Vandals tried to convert the urban Catholic Christians of Africa to their Arian heresy (named after the Egyptian Christian priest Arius, who taught that the Ota dan kattaroqdir O'g'il va Ruh ). The Vandal regime sent the Catholic clergy into exile and expropriated Catholic churches; in the 520s their efforts turned to persecution, including martyrdom of resisters, yet without success. The Berbers remained aloof. In all Vandal rule would last 94 years (439–533).^[206][207]

The Vandals did provide functional security and governed with a light hand, so that the former Roman province prospered at first. Large estates were confiscated, but with former owners as managers. Roman officials administered public affairs and Roman law courts continued, Latin being used for government business. Yet Romans would wear Vandal dress at the royal court in Carthage. Agriculture provided more than enough to feed the region and trade flourished in the towns.^[208] Yet because of their desire to maintain a superiority in status, the Vandals refused to intermarry or agreeably assimilate to the advanced culture of the Romans. Consequently, finer points were overlooked; the Vandals failed to sustain in its entirety the workable civil society situated subtly, uniquely. Berbers confederacies beyond the frontier grew increasingly powerful, dangerous to the prevailing regime.^[209][210]

Vizantiya imperiyasi

Vizantiya imperiyasi in 565, at its height.

The Eastern Romans, known also as the Vizantiya imperiyasi, eventually recaptured Rome's Africa province during the Vandalik urushi in 534, when led by their celebrated general Belisarius. The Byzantines rebuilt fortifications and border defenses (the ohak), and entered into treaties with the Berbers. Nevertheless, for many decades security and prosperity were precarious and were never fully restored. Direct Byzantine rule didn't extend far beyond the coastal cities. The African interior remained under the control of various Berber tribal confederacies, e.g., the Byzantines contested against the Berber Kingdom of Garmules.^[211]

Early in the 7th century, several new Berber groups (the Jarid va Zanata of the Auruba) converted to Catholicism, joining Berbers already Christian, although other Berbers remained attached to their gods.^[212][213] In the 540s the restored Catholic Church in Africa was disrupted by the Emperor Yustinian 's position in favor of the Monofizit ta'limot.

In the early 7th century, the Byzantine Empire entered a period of serious crises that would alter the future of Tunisia. For centuries Byzantium's greatest enemy had been the Sosoniy forslar, and the two powers were chronically at war with each other (the Rim-fors urushlari ). The warfare was often intense but usually resulted in small border changes. In the 7th century however, the situation changed dramatically. Persistent religious discord within the Empire, followed by the overthrow of Imperator Mauris by the tyrant Fokalar, severely weakened the Byzantines. The Persians under Xosroes II invaded the Byzantine Empire, along with allies from the north: the Evroosiyo avarlari va Slav konfederatsiyalar. Much of the Empire was overrun and its end seemed near.^[214]

It was the son of the Karfagenning eksarxi, Geraklius (575–641), who would restore the empire's fortunes. Heraclius sailed east across the Mediterranean with an African fleet to the Byzantine capital city of Konstantinopol and overthrew the usurper Fokalar. Heraclius then became Roman Emperor in 610. He began reorganizing the government and erecting defenses to counter threats to the capital. Notwithstanding, the Persians continued their invasion, meeting little resistance, taking Antioxiya in 611, Quddus in 614, and Iskandariya in 619, in an astonishing series of victories. The hostile forces of Chosroes II soon stood before Constantinople. In response, Heraclius at great risk moved quickly a Roman army by ship east over the Qora dengiz, landing near his Xazar ittifoqchilar. In subsequent fighting the Byzantines managed to out-flank the Persians. By 627 Heraclius was marching on their capital Ktesifon in a complete reversal of fortune. Then in 628 the Persian Shah, Chosroes II, was killed in a revolt by his generals.^[215]

Vizantiya imperiyasi, 650, still with its Karfagenning eksharxi, yet after its recent loss of Syria (634–636) and of Egypt (639–641) to the Arabs of Islam.

As a result of these dramatic and tumultuous events, Sosoniylar Forsi was in disarray and confusion. Consequently, the Byzantines were able to retake their provinces of Misr va Suriya. Yet with the return of the Romans, the pre-existing religious discord between the local Monofizit Christians of Egypt and the official imperial Xalsedon Church also returned. In order to mediate this Xristologik conflict, Emperor Heraclius attempted to work out a theological compromise. Natijada bo'ldi Monotelitizm, whose compromise doctrine satisfied neither Monophysite nor Chalcedonian; the religious discord among Christians continued to conflict the Empire.^[216]

Yet events along the imperial frontier did not rest. To the south, the Arab peoples of the desert began to stir under the influence of a new yakkaxudolik vision, being unified and energized by the foundational teachings of the Payg'ambarimiz Muhammad (570–632). In 636 at the Yarmuk jangi ning sharqida Galiley dengizi the Arab Islamic armies decisively defeated the Byzantine forces.^[214] Soon the recently lost and regained Roman provinces of Syria and Egypt would be lost again by the Byzantines—with finality—to emerging Islam.^[217]

Keyingi Arab invasion and occupation of Egypt in 640, there were Christian refugees who fled west, until arriving in the Exarchate of Africa (Carthage), which remained under Byzantine rule. Here serious disputes arose within the Catholic churches at Carthage over Monophysite doctrines and Monothelitism, with St. Maximus the Confessor leading the orthodox Catholics.^[218]

Shuningdek qarang

• Berber odamlari
• Berber tillari
• Utica
• Karfagen
• Salvius Julianus
• Septimius Severus
• Apuleius
• Felicitas and Perpetua
• Tertullian
• Kipriy
• Avgustin
• Firmus
• Jildo
• Afrika viloyati
• Afrika yeparxiyasi
• Afrikaning eksarxati
• Afrikaning imperatorlik prefekturasi
• Klassik davrda Shimoliy Afrika
• Tunis tarixi

Ma'lumotnomalar