Uch mil orolidagi avariya - Three Mile Island accident

Uch Mile orolidagi avariya
Carter TMI-2.jpg
Prezident Jimmi Karter bilan TMI-2 boshqaruv xonasiga 1979 yil 1 aprelda tashrif buyurgan NRR Direktor Xarold Denton, Pensilvaniya gubernatori Dik Tornburg va Jeyms Floyd, TMI-2 operatsiyalari rahbari
Sana1979 yil 28 mart
(41 yil oldin) (1979-03-28)
Vaqt04:00 (Sharqiy vaqt zonasi UTC − 5)
ManzilLondonderri shaharchasi, Pensilvaniya shtatining Dofin okrugi
NatijaINES 5-daraja (katta oqibatlarga olib keladigan avariya)
Belgilangan1999 yil 25 mart[1]

The Uch Mile orolidagi avariya edi a qisman erishi 2-sonli reaktorning Uchta Mil orolidagi yadro ishlab chiqarish stantsiyasi (TMI-2) in Dofin okrugi, Pensilvaniya, yaqin Harrisburg va keyingi radiatsiya oqishi Bu 1979 yil 28 martda sodir bo'lgan. Bu AQSh tijorat atom elektr stantsiyalari tarixidagi eng muhim baxtsiz hodisa.[2] Etti punkt bo'yicha Xalqaro yadroviy voqealar ko'lami, voqea beshta "kengroq oqibatlarga olib keladigan baxtsiz hodisa" deb baholandi.[3][4]

Baxtsiz hodisa yadro bo'lmagan ikkinchi darajali tizimdagi nosozliklar bilan boshlandi, keyin esa yopiq holatda qoldi uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relefli valf birlamchi tizimda. Bu katta miqdorda ruxsat berdi yadro reaktorining sovutish suyuqligi qochmoq Mexanik nosozliklar dastlabki nosozlik bilan murakkablashdi zavod operatorlari vaziyatni a deb tan olish sovutish suyuqligining yo'qolishi etarli darajada o'qimaganligi sababli va inson omillari, kabi inson va kompyuterning o'zaro ta'siri elektr stantsiyasidagi boshqaruv xonasining noaniq ko'rsatkichlariga tegishli dizayn nazorati foydalanuvchi interfeysi. Xususan, yashirin indikator nuri operatorni reaktorning avtomatik favqulodda sovutish tizimini qo'lda bekor qilishiga olib keldi, chunki operator adashib reaktorda juda ko'p sovutuvchi suv bor va bug 'bosimining pasayishiga olib keldi.[5]

Voqea kristallangan yadroga qarshi faollar va keng jamoatchilik o'rtasida xavfsizlik masalalari va atom sanoati uchun yangi qoidalarga olib keldi. Bu yangi reaktorni qurish dasturining pasayishiga hissa qo'shgan, bu 1970-yillarda boshlangan sekinlashuv.[6] Qisman erishi natijasida ozodlikka erishildi radioaktiv gazlar va radioaktiv yod atrof-muhitga.

Yadroga qarshi harakat faollar avariya oqibatida mintaqadagi sog'liqqa ta'sir qilishidan xavotir bildirdilar.[7] Biroq, epidemiologik tahlil qiladigan tadqiqotlar saraton darajasi voqea sodir bo'lganligi sababli maydon atrofida va atrofida a statistik jihatdan ahamiyatli stavkaning o'sishi va shuning uchun yo'q sabab baxtsiz hodisani ushbu saraton bilan bog'laydigan aloqa tasdiqlandi.[8][9][10][11][12][13] Tozalash 1979 yil avgustda boshlangan va rasmiy ravishda 1993 yil dekabrda tugagan va umumiy tozalash qiymati taxminan 1 milliard dollarni tashkil etgan.[14]

Baxtsiz hodisa

Fon

TMI-2 zavodining soddalashtirilgan sxematik diagrammasi[15]

Hodisadan oldin tungi soatlarda TMI-2 reaktori 97% quvvat bilan ishlagan, uning yonidagi TMI-1 reaktori yonilg'i quyish uchun yopilgan.[16] 1979 yil 28 martda EST soat 4:00:37 da qisman yadroning erishiga olib keladigan voqealarning asosiy zanjiri TMI-2 ning ikkinchi darajali tsiklidan boshlandi, bu uchta asosiy suv / bug ko'chadan biri bosimli suv reaktori (PWR).

Avtohalokatning dastlabki sababi o'n bir soat oldin, operatorlarning sakkiztadan birida blokirovkani tuzatishga urinish paytida sodir bo'lgan kondensat parlatgichlari, ikkilamchi suvni tozalaydigan murakkab filtrlar. Ushbu filtrlar bug 'generatorlarida suvdagi minerallar va aralashmalarning to'planishini to'xtatish, ikkilamchi tomondan korroziya darajasini pasaytirish uchun mo'ljallangan.

Blokirovkalar ushbu qatronlar filtrlari bilan tez-tez uchraydi va odatda osonlik bilan o'rnatiladi, ammo bu holda siqilgan qatronlarni siqilgan havo bilan majburan chiqarib yuborishning odatiy usuli muvaffaqiyatga erishmadi. Operatorlar siqilgan havoni suvga puflashga va suvning kuchini qatronlardan tozalashga qaror qildilar. Qatronni chiqarib yuborishganda, oz miqdordagi suv tiqilib qolgan valfdan o'tib, asbobga kirib bordi havo liniyasi. Bu oxir-oqibat sabab bo'ladi ozuqa suv nasoslari, kondensat kuchaytiradigan nasoslar va kondensat nasoslari soat 4:00 atrofida o'chadi, bu esa o'z navbatida turbinalar safari.[17]

Reaktorning haddan tashqari qizishi va relef klapanining ishlamay qolishi

Sifatida bug 'generatorlari Endi ozuqa suvini olmaydilar, reaktorning sovutish suvi tizimida issiqlik va bosim oshib, reaktorning ishlashiga olib keldi favqulodda o'chirish (SCRAM). Sakkiz soniya ichida, boshqaruv tayoqchalari to'xtatish uchun yadroga kiritilgan yadro zanjiri reaktsiyasi. Biroq, reaktor ishlab chiqarishni davom ettirdi chirigan issiqlik va bug 'turbinada ishlatilmagani uchun, reaktorning asosiy suv quyqasidan issiqlik chiqarilmay qoldi.[18]

Ikkilamchi oziqlantiruvchi suv nasoslari to'xtagandan so'ng, uchta yordamchi nasos avtomatik ravishda ishga tushirildi. Biroq, muntazam parvarishlash uchun vanalar yopilganligi sababli, tizim hech qanday suvni pompalay olmadi. Ushbu klapanlarning yopilishi kalitni buzish edi Yadro nazorati bo'yicha komissiya (NRC) qoidasi, agar unga binoan barcha yordamchi besleme nasoslari yopiq bo'lsa, reaktor o'chirilishi kerak. Keyinchalik bu NRC rasmiylari tomonidan asosiy muvaffaqiyatsizlikka aylandi.[19]

Birlamchi tsikldagi issiqlikni yo'qotish yo'qolishi va yordamchi tizimning ishlamay qolishi birlamchi tsikl bosimining oshishiga olib keldi. uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relefli valf ning yuqori qismida bosim o'tkazuvchi - bosimli faol regulyator tanki - avtomatik ravishda ochiladi. Haddan tashqari bosim chiqarilganda qutqaruv valfi yopiq bo'lishi kerak va elektr quvvati elektromagnit uchuvchi avtomatik ravishda kesilgan, ammo mexanik nosozlik tufayli relef klapan ochilib qolgan. Ochiq valf sovutish suvi suvining birlamchi tizimdan chiqib ketishiga yo'l qo'ydi va birlamchi sovutish tizimining bosimining pasayishi va keyinchalik qisman yadro parchalanishining asosiy mexanik sababi bo'ldi.[20]

Muhim foydalanuvchi interfeysi muhandisligi muammolar reaktorni tekshirishda aniqlandi boshqaruv tizim foydalanuvchi interfeysi. Vana ochiq turganiga qaramay, boshqaruv panelidagi yorug'lik, vana ekanligini ko'rsatib turibdi yopiq. Aslida, yorug'lik klapanning holatini ko'rsatmadi, faqat elektromagnitning holati quvvatlanadi yoki yoqilmaydi, shuning uchun yopiq supapning yolg'on dalillari keltirilgan.[21] Natijada, operatorlar bir necha soat davomida muammoni to'g'ri tashxislashmadi.[22]

Uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relef quvuri ëtqizish moslamasining dizayni tubdan noto'g'ri edi. Lampochka shunchaki valf bilan parallel ravishda bog'langan elektromagnit Shunday qilib, uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relef valfi qorong'i tushganda, aslida vana holatini ko'rsatmasdan yopilganligini anglatadi. Asosiy o'chirish klapani ochilib qolganda, yoritilmagan chiroq, vana yopilganligini anglatib, operatorlarni yo'ldan ozdirdi. Bu operatorlarni chalkashtirib yubordi, chunki birlamchi zanjirdagi bosim, harorat va sovutish suvi darajasi, agar ular o'z asboblari orqali kuzatish imkoniga ega bo'lsalar, uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relef quvuri ëtqizish quvuri ëtqizish tugmachasi yopilgandek o'zini tuta olmaydilar. Ushbu chalkashlik avariyaning og'irligiga hissa qo'shdi, chunki operatorlar o'zlarining asboblariga zid bo'lgan taxminlar tsiklidan chiqa olmadilar. Operatorlarning birinchi smenasi haqida fikrga ega bo'lmagan yangi smena paydo bo'lguncha muammo to'g'ri aniqlanmadi. Bu vaqtga kelib katta zarar ko'rgan.[iqtibos kerak ]

Operatorlar uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relef valfi indikatorining noaniq xususiyatlarini tushunish va asosiy relef klapanining yopilganligini muqobil tasdiqlashni izlash uchun o'qitilmagan. Sensor uchuvchisiz boshqariladigan valf bilan bosim o'tkazuvchi rezervuar orasidagi quyruq trubkasida joylashgan pastki harorat ko'rsatkichi tiqilib qolgan valfga ishora qilishi mumkin edi, agar operatorlar uning ko'rsatkichlarini me'yordan yuqori bo'lsa. Biroq, bu voqea sodir bo'lganidan keyin foydalanish uchun mo'ljallangan "xavfsizlik darajasi" ko'rsatkichlari to'plamining bir qismi emas edi va xodimlar uni ishlatish uchun o'qitilmagan edi. Etti metr balandlikdagi asboblar panelining orqa tomonida joylashganligi ham uning samarali ko'rinmasligini anglatardi.[23]

Birlamchi reaktorni sovutish tizimining bosimini pasaytirish

Birlamchi tizimdagi bosim pasayishda davom etar ekan, reaktor sovutadigan suv oqishini davom ettirdi, ammo u yadro ichida qaynab turardi. Birinchidan, bug 'hosil bo'lgan va darhol qulab tushgan kichik pufaklar paydo bo'ldi nukleatning qaynashi. Tizim bosimi yanada pasayishi bilan reaktorning sovutish suvida bug 'cho'ntaklari shakllana boshladi. Nukleat qaynashidan (DNB) "kino qaynashi" rejimiga o'tish sovutish suvi kanallarida bug 'bo'shliqlarini keltirib chiqardi va suyuq sovutish suvi oqimini to'sib qo'ydi va yoqilg'ining qoplanishi harorati sezilarli darajada oshdi. Bosim ichidagi suvning umumiy darajasi ko'tarilish ochiq uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan valf orqali sovutish suyuqligining yo'qolishiga qaramay, bu bug 'bo'shliqlarining hajmi sovutish suyuqligi yo'qolganidan ancha tez o'sdi. Yadro ichidagi suv darajasini o'lchaydigan maxsus asbob yo'qligi sababli, operatorlar yadrodagi suv darajasini faqat bosim o'tkazgichdagi darajaga qarab baholashdi. Yuqori bo'lganligi sababli, ular yadro sovutish suyuqligi bilan to'g'ri yopilgan deb taxmin qilishdi, chunki reaktor idishida bug 'hosil bo'lganligi sababli indikator noto'g'ri ko'rsatkichlarni taqdim etdi.[24] Suv sathining yuqoriligi ko'rsatkichlari chalkashliklarni keltirib chiqardi, chunki operatorlar "hech qachon yo'l qo'ymaslik to'g'risida" buyruq olgan birlamchi tsikl "qattiq" bo'lishidan (ya'ni bosim o'tkazgichida bug 'cho'ntagi buferi mavjud emas) xavotirda edilar. Ushbu chalkashlik avtohalokatni a deb tan olmaslikning asosiy sababchisi bo'ldi sovutish suyuqligining yo'qolishi va operatorlarni tizim haddan tashqari to'ldirilganidan qo'rqib, uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relef valfi tiqilib qolgandan va sovutish suyuqligining yo'qolishi boshlangandan so'ng avtomatik ravishda ishga tushirilgan favqulodda yadroli sovutish nasoslarini o'chirishga majbur qildi.[25][26]

Uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relef quvuri ëtqizish moslamasi hali ham ochiq holda, uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relef klapanidan chiqindilarni yig'ib olgan bosim o'tkazuvchi rezervuar haddan tashqari to'lib ketdi karter soat 4: 11da signalni to'ldirish va chalish uchun. Ushbu signal, uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relef quvuri ëtqizish liniyasidagi normal haroratdan yuqori va binolarning harorati va bosimi juda yuqori bo'lganligi bilan birga, sovutish suyuqligining yo'qolishi davom etayotganining aniq ko'rsatkichlari edi, ammo dastlab bu ko'rsatkichlar operatorlar tomonidan e'tiborsiz qoldirildi .[27] Ertalab soat 4: 15da bosim o'tkazuvchi rezervuarning relyef diafragmasi yorilib, radioaktiv sovutish suyuqligi umumiy maydonga chiqa boshladi qamoqxona binosi. Ushbu radioaktiv sovutish suyuqligi qamoqxona binosi ga qadar asosiy bino tashqarisidagi yordamchi binoga zaxira nasoslar soat 4:39 da to'xtatilgan.[28]

Radioaktiv moddalarning qisman erishi va keyinchalik chiqarilishi

Taxminan 5:20 da, deyarli 80 daqiqalik sekin harorat ko'tarilgandan so'ng, dastlabki tsiklning to'rtta asosiy reaktor sovutish suvi nasoslari ishlay boshladi bo'shliq ular o'rniga suv emas, balki bug 'pufagi / suv aralashmasi sifatida. Nasoslar yopildi va tabiiy aylanish suv harakatini davom ettiradi deb ishonishdi. Tizimdagi bug 'yadro orqali o'tishni oldini oldi va suv aylanishni to'xtatganda, u ko'payib boradigan miqdorda bug'ga aylandi. Soat 6: 00dan keyin reaktor yadrosining yuqori qismi ochilib qoldi va kuchli issiqlik reaktor yadrosida hosil bo'lgan bug 'bilan reaksiya o'rtasida reaktsiya paydo bo'ldi zirkaloy yadro yoqilg'isi tayoqchasi qoplama, hosil berish zirkonyum dioksid, vodorod va qo'shimcha issiqlik. Ushbu reaktsiya yadroviy yonilg'i tayog'ining qoplamasini eritib yubordi va yonilg'i pelletlariga zarar etkazdi, bu esa reaktorning sovutish suyuqligiga radioaktiv izotoplarni chiqarib yubordi va shu kuni tushdan keyin izolyatsiyalash binosida kichik portlashga sabab bo'lgan deb hisoblangan vodorod gazini ishlab chiqardi.[29]

TMI-2 yadrosi holati konfiguratsiyasining NRC grafigi.
  1. 2B kirish
  2. 1A kirish
  3. bo'shliq
  4. bo'shashgan yadro qoldiqlari
  5. qobiq
  6. ilgari eritilgan material
  7. pastki plenum qoldiqlari
  8. mumkin bo'lgan mintaqa uran bilan tugagan
  9. bekor qilingan asboblar uchun qo'llanma
  10. to'siq plitasidagi teshik
  11. oldingi eritilgan materialni aylanib o'tuvchi mintaqaning ichki yuzalarida qoplash
  12. yuqori tarmoqning shikastlanishi

Ertalab soat 6 da, boshqaruv xonasida smenada o'zgarish yuz berdi. Yangi kelish uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relef quvuri ëtqizish trubkasi va ushlab turuvchi idishdagi harorat haddan tashqari yuqori ekanligini payqab, zaxira valfidan foydalangan - "blokli valf" deb nomlangan - uchuvchi boshqariladigan relef valfi orqali sovutish suvi chiqishini o'chirish uchun, lekin taxminan 32000 AQSh gali (120.000 l) sovutish suyuqligi dastlabki tsikldan chiqib ketgan.[30] Muammo boshlangandan 165 daqiqa o'tgach, soat 6:45 ga qadar, ifloslangan suv detektorlarga etib kelganida radiatsiya signalizatsiyasi yoqildi; o'sha vaqtga kelib, birlamchi sovutish suvidagi radiatsiya darajasi kutilgan darajadan 300 baravar ko'p edi va umumiy suv o'tkazmaydigan bino jiddiy ifloslangan edi.

Favqulodda vaziyatlarni e'lon qilish va darhol oqibatlari

Ertalab soat 6:57 da zavod noziri a sayt hududida favqulodda vaziyat va 30 daqiqadan kamroq vaqt o'tgach, stansiya menejeri Gari Miller keng jamoatchilik uchun "jiddiy radiologik oqibatlarga olib kelishi mumkin" deb ta'riflangan umumiy favqulodda vaziyatni e'lon qildi.[31] Metropolitan Edison (Met Ed) xabar bergan Pensilvaniya favqulodda vaziyatlarni boshqarish agentligi (PEMA), bu o'z navbatida davlat va mahalliy idoralarga murojaat qildi, Hokim Richard L. Tornburg va leytenant gubernator Uilyam Skranton III, kimga Thornburgh voqea sodir bo'lganligi haqida ma'lumot to'plash va hisobot berish uchun javobgarlikni yuklagan.[32] Zavoddagi operatorlarning noaniqligi, Met Ed tomonidan davlat idoralari va matbuotga, xususan, joydan tashqaridagi radioaktiv chiqishlar ehtimoli va zo'ravonligi to'g'risida qilgan qismli, noaniq yoki qarama-qarshi bayonotlarda aks etdi. Skranton matbuot anjumani o'tkazdi, unda bu ehtimolga ishontirgan bo'lsa-da, chalkashtirib, "ozgina miqdorda radiatsiya chiqqani ... normal nurlanish darajasida o'sish aniqlanmagan" deb aytdi. Bularga boshqa bir rasmiy va Met Edning ikkala radioaktivlik chiqarilmagan deb da'vo qilgan bayonotlari zid edi.[33] Darhaqiqat, zavoddagi asboblardan va joydan tashqaridagi detektorlardan o'qish vaqtincha bo'lgan taqdirda, odamlar sog'lig'iga tahdid solishi mumkin bo'lmagan darajada bo'lsa ham, radioaktivlik tarqalishini aniqladi va o'sha paytda juda ifloslangan reaktorni ushlab turish ta'minlandi.[34]

Met Ed zavoddan bug 'chiqarishni boshlashdan oldin ularga xabar bermaganidan g'azablanib, kompaniya avariya og'irligini kamaytirayotganiga amin bo'lib, davlat rasmiylari NRC.[35] Met Eddan voqea sodir bo'lganligi to'g'risida xabar olgandan so'ng, NRC favqulodda vaziyatlarni bartaraf etish bo'yicha shtab-kvartirasini faollashtirdi Bethesda, Merilend va xodimlarini Three Mile Islandga yubordi. NRC raisi Jozef Xendri va komissar Viktor Gilinskiy[36] dastlab avariyani, NRC tarixchisi Semyuel Uokerning so'zlari bilan aytganda, "xavotirga sabab bo'lgan, ammo tashvishlantiruvchi narsa emas".[37] Gilinskiy jurnalistlar va Kongress a'zolariga vaziyat to'g'risida ma'lumot berib, Oq uy xodimlarini xabardor qildi va soat 10: 00da yana ikkita komissar bilan uchrashdi. Biroq, NRC davlat kabi aniq ma'lumotlarni olishda bir xil muammolarga duch keldi va favqulodda vaziyatlarni hal qilishga tayyor bo'lmaganligi sababli to'sqinlik qildi, chunki unda aniq ma'lumot yo'q edi. buyruq tarkibi va kommunal xizmatga nima qilish kerakligini aytib berish yoki mahalliy hududni evakuatsiya qilishni buyurish huquqiga ega emas edi.[38]

2009 yilgi maqolasida Gilinskiy "reaktor operatorlari yoqilg'i haroratini erish nuqtasi yonida o'lchaganini" bilish besh hafta davom etganini yozgan.[39] U yana shunday deb yozgan edi: "Biz yillar davomida - reaktor kemasi jismonan ochilgunga qadar - stansiya operatori soat 8:00 da NRCga qo'ng'iroq qilgan vaqtga kelib, uran yoqilg'isining taxminan yarmi allaqachon erib ketganligini o'rganmagan edik."[39]

Boshqarish xonasi xodimlariga hali ham birlamchi suv sathining pastligi va yadroning yarmidan ko'pi ochiq bo'lganligi aniq emas edi. Bir guruh ishchilar termojuftlar va birlamchi ilmoqli suv namunasini oldi. Favqulodda vaziyatdan etti soat o'tgach, yangi suv birlamchi tsiklga quyildi va bosimni pasaytirish uchun zaxira relef valfi ochildi, shunda halqa suv bilan to'ldirilishi mumkin edi. 16 soatdan keyin birlamchi tsikli nasoslari yana bir bor yoqildi va asosiy harorat pasayishni boshladi. Yadroning katta qismi bor edi eritilgan va tizim hali ham xavfli radioaktiv edi.[iqtibos kerak ]

Voqea sodir bo'lganidan keyingi uchinchi kuni bosim idishi gumbazida vodorod pufagi aniqlandi va u tashvish markaziga aylandi. Vodorod portlashi nafaqat bosim idishini buzishi, balki uning kattaligiga qarab, radioaktiv moddalarning keng miqyosda chiqarilishiga olib keladigan saqlovchi idishni yaxlitligini buzishi mumkin. Shu bilan birga, bosim idishida kislorod yo'qligi aniqlandi, bu vodorodning yonishi yoki portlashi uchun zaruriy shart. Vodorod pufagini kamaytirish uchun zudlik bilan choralar ko'rildi va keyingi kunga kelib u sezilarli darajada kamaydi. Keyingi hafta davomida a yordamida bug 'va vodorod reaktordan chiqarildi katalitik rekombinator va, tortishuvlarga ko'ra, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri shamollatish orqali atmosfera.[iqtibos kerak ]

Chiqarilgan radioaktiv materialni aniqlash

Chiqish uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relef valfi hali ham ochiq turgan paytda qoplama shikastlanganda yuz berdi. Bo'linish mahsulotlari reaktorning sovutish suviga chiqarildi. Uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan relef quvuri ëtqizish moslamasi ochiq holatda bo'lganligi sababli va sovutish suyuqligining avariyasini yo'qotish hali ham davom etayotgani sababli, parchalanish mahsulotlari va / yoki yonilg'i bilan birlamchi sovutish suvi chiqarilib, oxir-oqibat yordamchi binoga tushib qoldi. Yordamchi bino qamoq chegarasidan tashqarida edi.

Buni oxir-oqibat eshitilgan radiatsion signalizatsiya tasdiqladi. Shu bilan birga, ajralib chiqadigan mahsulotlarning juda oz qismi xona haroratida qattiq bo'lgan, juda oz radiologik ifloslanish atrof-muhit haqida xabar berilgan. TMI-2 inshootidan tashqarida bo'lgan TMI-2 avariyasi uchun sezilarli darajada radiatsiya darajasi bog'liq emas. Rogovin hisobotiga ko'ra, chiqarilgan radioizotoplarning katta qismi ksenon va kripton gazlari bo'lgan. Hisobotda "Hodisa paytida taxminan 2,5 MCi (93 PBq) radioaktiv nobel gazlar va 15 Ci (560 GBq) radioiodinlar chiqarildi" deyilgan. Buning natijasida zavod yaqinidagi ikki million odamga o'rtacha 1,4 mrem (14 mkSv) dozasi berildi. Hisobotda buni Denver kabi baland tog'li shaharda yashashdan olinadigan qo'shimcha yiliga 80 mrem (800 mSSv) bilan taqqoslangan.[40] Boshqa taqqoslash uchun, bemor ko'krak qafasi rentgenogrammasidan 3,2 mrem (32 mSv) oladi - bu o'simlik yaqinida olinganlarning o'rtacha dozasidan ikki baravar ko'p.[41] Tadbirlari beta radiatsiya hisobotdan chiqarildi.

Voqea sodir bo'lgan bir necha soat ichida Qo'shma Shtatlar atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish agentligi (EPA) zavodga eng yaqin uchta stantsiyada har kuni atrof-muhit namunalarini olishni boshladi. 11 ta stansiyada doimiy monitoring 1-aprelga qadar o'rnatilmagan va 3-aprelda 31 ta stansiyaga kengaytirilgan. Idoralararo tahlil natijasiga ko'ra, avariya radioaktivlikni fon darajasidan etarlicha oshirmagan va odamlar orasida yana bitta saraton kasalligining o'limiga sabab bo'lgan. mintaqada, ammo beta radiatsiya choralari kiritilmagan. EPA suv, tuproq, cho'kma yoki o'simlik namunalarida ifloslanishni aniqlamadi.[42]

Yaqin atrofdagi tadqiqotchilar Dikkinson kolleji - Xitoyning atmosfera atomik qurollarini sinovdan o'tkazishini aniqlash uchun etarlicha sezgir bo'lgan radiatsiya nazorati uskunalari bo'lgan - keyingi ikki hafta davomida ushbu hududdan tuproq namunalarini to'plagan va radioaktivlikning yuqori darajalarini aniqlamagan, faqat yog'ingarchilikdan keyin (tabiiy ravishda radon baxtsiz hodisa emas).[43] Shuningdek, avariyadan keyin reaktordan 50 milya (80 km) dan ortiq masofada yig'ilgan oq dumaloq tillarda sezyum-137 darajasi elektr stantsiyasini darhol o'rab turgan tumanlarda kiyiklarga qaraganda ancha yuqori ekanligi aniqlandi. Hatto o'sha paytda ham atmosfera qurollarini sinovdan o'tkazgan paytlarda ko'tarilgan darajalar mamlakatning boshqa hududlarida kiyiklarda ko'rilgan darajadan past edi.[44] Agar radioaktivlikning yuqori darajadagi chiqarilishlari bo'lganida, yod-131 va seziy-137 miqdorining ko'payishi qoramol va echki suti namunalarida aniqlanishi kutilgan bo'lar edi. Ammo yuqori darajalar topilmadi.[45] Keyinchalik o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, emissiya bo'yicha rasmiy ko'rsatkichlar mavjud bo'lgan ma'lumotlarga mos keladi dozimetr ma'lumotlar,[46] boshqalar bu ma'lumotlarning to'liq emasligini, xususan, erta nashrlar uchun qayd etishgan.[47]

Rasmiy ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, 1979 yil Kemeny Komissiyasi tomonidan Metropolitan Edison va NRC ma'lumotlaridan olingan, maksimal 480 PBq (13 MCi) radioaktiv zo'r gazlar (birinchi navbatda ksenon ) tadbir tomonidan chiqarilgan.[48] Biroq, bu yaxshi gazlar nisbatan zararsiz deb hisoblangan,[49] va faqat 481-629 GBq (13.0-17.0 Ci) ning qalqonsimon bez saratoni - sabab yod-131 ozod qilindi.[48] Ushbu ko'rsatkichlarga ko'ra umumiy chiqishlar reaktorda taxmin qilingan 370 EBq (10 GCi) ning nisbatan kichik qismini tashkil etdi.[49] Keyinchalik, yadroning taxminan yarmi eriganligi va 90% yonilg'i tayoqchalarining qoplamasi ishdan chiqqanligi aniqlandi,[15][50] yadrodan 5 fut (1,5 m) yo'qolgan va 20 atrofida qisqa tonna (18 t ) uranni bosim idishini pastki boshiga oqib, massasini hosil qiladi korium.[51] Qoplamadan keyingi ikkinchi darajadagi reaktor kemasi butunlikni saqlab qoldi va yadrodagi deyarli barcha radioaktiv izotoplar bilan zararlangan yoqilg'ini o'z ichiga oldi.[52]

Yadroga qarshi siyosiy guruhlar Kemeny Komissiyasining xulosalariga qarshi chiqishdi va boshqa mustaqil o'lchovlar TMI dan yuzlab milya pastroqda joylashgan joylarda radiatsiyaning normal darajadan etti baravar yuqori ekanligini ko'rsatdi.[53] Arni Gundersen, yadro sanoatining sobiq rahbari va yadroga qarshi advokat,[54] "Menimcha, NRC veb-saytidagi raqamlar 100 dan 1000 gacha o'chirilgan".[49][tekshirish kerak ][55]

Gundersen soat 14:00 dan sal oldin vodorod portlashi uchun bosimni kuzatish ma'lumotlariga asoslangan dalillarni taklif qiladi. 1979 yil 28 martda, bu nurlanishning yuqori dozasi uchun vositani taqdim etgan bo'lar edi. Gundersen to'rtta reaktor operatorlarining arizalarini keltiradi, unga binoan stansiya menejeri bosimning keskin ko'tarilishini bilgan, shundan so'ng ichki bosim tashqi bosimga tushib qolgan. Gundersen, shuningdek, boshqaruv xonasi tebranganini va eshiklar menteşalardan uchib ketganligini da'vo qildi. Biroq NRC rasmiy xabarlari shunchaki "vodorod kuyishi" ga tegishli.[49][tekshirish kerak ] Kemeny Komissiyasi "kuyish yoki portlash natijasida bosimni saqlash binoidagi kvadrat dyuym uchun (190 kPa) 28 funtga ko'tarilishiga olib keldi",[56] esa Washington Post "Tungi soat 14:00 da, ulkan sovutish nasoslari ishga tushirilishi mumkin bo'lgan bosimgacha deyarli bosim ostida, kichik vodorod portlashi reaktorni silkitdi".[57]

Yumshatilish siyosati

Ixtiyoriy evakuatsiya

1999 yilda Midltaun shahrida (Pensilvaniya) zavod yaqinida avariya va hududni evakuatsiya qilishni tasvirlaydigan belgi.
Orqa fonda uchta mil oroli Harrisburg xalqaro aeroporti, voqea sodir bo'lganidan bir necha hafta o'tgach.

Voqea sodir bo'lganidan yigirma sakkiz soat o'tgach, Uilyam Skranton III, leytenant gubernator, Metropolitan Edison, zavod egasi, davlatni "hamma narsa nazorat ostida" deb ishontirganini aytgan brifingda paydo bo'ldi.[58] O'sha kuni Skranton o'z bayonotini o'zgartirib, "vaziyat bizni ishontirishga undaganidan ko'ra murakkabroq vaziyat" deb aytdi.[58] Radioaktivlikning chiqarilishi to'g'risida qarama-qarshi bayonotlar mavjud edi.[59] Maktablar yopilgan va aholini uydan chiqmaslikka chaqirishgan. Fermerlarga chorva mollarini yopiq va saqlanadigan ozuqada saqlash kerakligi aytilgan.[58][59]

Hokim Dik Tornburg, NRC raisining maslahati bilan Jozef Xendri, "homilador ayollar va maktabgacha yoshdagi bolalarni ... Uch mil orolidagi inshootdan besh mil radiusda" evakuatsiya qilishni maslahat berdi. Evakuatsiya zonasi 30-mart, juma kuni 20 millik radiusgacha kengaytirildi.[60] Bir necha kun ichida hududni 140 ming kishi tark etdi.[15][58][61] 20 millik radiusdagi 663,500 aholining yarmidan ko'pi bu hududda qoldi.[62][to'liq iqtibos kerak ][60] 1979 yil aprel oyida o'tkazilgan so'rovga ko'ra, evakuatsiya qilinganlarning 98 foizi uch hafta ichida o'z uylariga qaytib kelishgan.[60]

TMIdan keyingi so'rovlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, Amerika jamoatchiligining 50 foizdan kamrog'i avtohalokatni Pensilvaniya shtati rasmiylari va NRC tomonidan ko'rib chiqilishidan mamnun bo'lgan va so'ralgan odamlar kommunal xizmatdan (Umumiy kommunal xizmatlar) va zavoddan ham mamnun bo'lishgan. dizayner.[63]

Tergov

Bir necha shtat va federal hukumat idoralari inqiroz bo'yicha tekshiruvlarni o'tkazdilar, ularning eng ko'zga ko'ringanlari Uch mil orolidagi avariya bo'yicha Prezident komissiyasi, tomonidan yaratilgan Jimmi Karter 1979 yil aprelda.[64] Komissiya o'n ikki kishilik hay'atdan iborat bo'lib, ular yadroga qarshi yoki yadroga qarshi kuchli qarashlari yo'qligi uchun tanlangan va rais tomonidan boshqariladi. Jon G. Kemeny, prezidenti Dartmut kolleji. Olti oy ichida yakuniy hisobotni tayyorlashga ko'rsatma berildi va jamoatchilik muhokamasi, depozitlar va hujjatlar yig'ilgandan so'ng, 1979 yil 31 oktyabrda tugallangan tadqiqotni e'lon qildi.[65] Tergov Babcock & Wilcox, Met Ed, GPU va NRC-ni sifatni kafolatlash va texnik xizmat ko'rsatishdagi kamchiliklar, operatorlarning yetarli darajada tayyorlanmaganligi, xavfsizlik to'g'risidagi muhim ma'lumotlarning etishmasligi, menejmentning pastligi va o'zboshimchalik uchun qattiq tanqid qildi, ammo kelajagi to'g'risida xulosa qilishdan qochdi. atom sanoati.[66] Kemeny Komissiyasining eng og'ir tanqidlari, "tashkilot, protseduralar, amaliyotlar va avvalambor - NRC [va yadro sanoati] munosabatlarida" tub o'zgarishlar zarur edi "degan xulosaga keldi.[67][to'liq iqtibos kerak ] Kemenining ta'kidlashicha, operatorlar tomonidan amalga oshirilgan harakatlar "noo'rin", ammo ishchilar "ular bajarishi kerak bo'lgan protseduralar asosida ish yuritmoqdalar. Bizning ko'rib chiqishimiz va ularni o'rganishimiz protseduralar etarli emasligini va boshqaruv xonasi" ekanligini ko'rsatdi. baxtsiz hodisani boshqarish uchun juda etarli emas ".[68]

Kemeny Komissiyasi Babcock & Wilcox-ning uchuvchisiz ishlaydigan valfi ilgari 11 marta ishlamay qolganligini, ularning to'qqiztasi ochiq holatda bo'lganini va sovutish suvi qochib ketishini ta'kidladi. Ammo, bundan ham dahshatliroq narsa shundaki, TMIdagi voqealarning dastlabki sabablar ketma-ketligi 18 oy oldin boshqa Babcock & Wilcox reaktorida takrorlangan. Devis-Besse atom elektr stantsiyasi o'sha paytda Toledo Edisonga tegishli edi. Faqatgina farq shundaki, Devis-Bessedagi operatorlar vana nosozligini 20 daqiqadan so'ng aniqladilar, bu erda TMIda 80 daqiqa vaqt ketdi va Devis-Besse inshooti 9% quvvat bilan ishladi, bu esa TMI ning 97%. Babcock muhandislari bu muammoni tan olishganiga qaramay, kompaniya o'z mijozlariga vana muammosi to'g'risida aniq xabar berolmadi.[69]

The Pensilvaniya Vakillar palatasi evakuatsiya tartiblarini takomillashtirish zarurligiga bag'ishlangan o'z tekshiruvini o'tkazdi.[iqtibos kerak ]

1985 yilda buzilgan reaktorning ichki qismini ko'rish uchun televizion kamera ishlatilgan. 1986 yilda, yadro namunalari va qoldiqlardan namunalar olingan korium reaktor idishining pastki qismidagi qatlamlar va tahlil qilingan.[70]

Atom energetikasiga ta'siri

Dan foydalanishning global tarixi atom energiyasi. Uch millik orolda sodir bo'lgan voqea - bu yangi reaktor qurilishining pasayishiga sabab bo'lgan omillardan biridir.

IAEA ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, Uch millik orolda sodir bo'lgan voqea atom energetikasining global rivojlanishida muhim burilish bo'ldi.[71] 1963-1979 yillarda global miqyosda qurilayotgan reaktorlar soni 1971 va 1978 yillardan tashqari har yili ko'payib bordi. Ammo voqeadan so'ng AQShda qurilayotgan reaktorlar soni 1980-1998 yillarda pasayib ketdi, qurilish xarajatlari oshib, tugatish muddati kechiktirildi. ba'zi reaktorlar.[72] Ko'p o'xshash Babkok va Uilkoks buyurtma bo'yicha reaktorlar bekor qilindi; jami 1980-1984 yillarda AQShning 51 ta yadro reaktori bekor qilingan.[73]

1979 yilgi TMI avariyasi AQSh atom energetikasining yo'q qilinishini boshlamadi, ammo bu uning tarixiy o'sishini to'xtatdi. Bundan tashqari, avvalgisi natijasida 1973 yilgi neft inqirozi va inqirozdan keyingi tahlil, potentsial ortiqcha ishlab chiqarish xulosalari bilan asosiy yuk, rejalashtirilgan qirqta atom elektr stantsiyalari TMI halokatidan oldin allaqachon bekor qilingan edi. TMI hodisasi yuz berganda, 129 atom elektr stantsiyasi tasdiqlangan edi, ammo ulardan faqat 53 tasi (hali ishlamagan) qurib bitkazildi. Tomonidan murakkablashtirilgan uzoq ko'rib chiqish jarayonida Chernobil fojiasi etti yil o'tgach, xavfsizlik muammolari va dizayndagi kamchiliklarni to'g'irlash bo'yicha Federal talablar yanada qat'iylashdi, mahalliy muxolifat yanada aniq bo'lib, qurilish muddatlari sezilarli darajada uzaytirildi va xarajatlar oshdi.[74] 2012 yilgacha,[75] TMIdan oldingi yildan beri hech bir AQSh atom elektr stantsiyasini qurilishni boshlash huquqiga ega bo'lmagan.

Jahon miqyosida atom elektr stantsiyalari qurilishining o'sishining oxiri yanada fojiali bilan tugadi Chernobil fojiasi 1986 yilda (grafaga qarang).

Tozalamoq

Olib tashlash uchun ishlaydigan ekipaj radioaktiv ifloslanish da Uch mil oroli

Uchta Mile orolining 2-bo'limi juda qattiq shikastlangan va ishni davom ettirish uchun ifloslangan; reaktor asta-sekin o'chirildi va butunlay yopildi. TMI-2 internetda bor-yo'g'i 3 oy davomida ishlagan, ammo hozirda vayron bo'lgan reaktor kemasi va ichkariga kirishga yaroqsiz bino bo'lgan. Tozalash 1979 yil avgustda boshlanib, 1993 yil dekabrda rasman tugagan va umumiy tozalash qiymati taxminan 1 milliard dollarni tashkil qilgan.[14] Benjamin K. Sovacool, 2007 yildagi yirik energetik baxtsiz hodisalarni dastlabki baholashda, TMI avariyasi jami 2,4 milliard dollarlik moddiy zarar etkazgan deb taxmin qildi.[76]

Dastlab sa'y-harakatlar saytni tozalash va zararsizlantirishga, ayniqsa zararlangan reaktorni yonilg'i bilan to'ldirishga qaratilgan edi. 1985 yildan boshlab deyarli 100 qisqa tonna (91 tonna) radioaktiv yoqilg'i maydondan chiqarildi. 1988 yilda Yadro nazorati bo'yicha komissiya, 2-blok joylashgan joyni qo'shimcha ravishda zararsizlantirish mumkin bo'lsa-da, qolgan radioaktivlik aholi salomatligi va xavfsizligiga tahdid solmasligi uchun etarli darajada saqlanganligini e'lon qildi. Tozalashning birinchi yirik bosqichi 1990 yilda yakunlandi, o'shanda ishchilar 150 qisqa tonna (140 tonna) radioaktiv parchani Aydaxo shtatiga Energetika bo'limining Milliy muhandislik laboratoriyasida saqlash uchun jo'natishdi. Shu bilan birga, ifloslangan sovutish suvi bino ichiga singib ketgan, binoning betoniga singib ketgan va radioaktiv qoldiqni olib tashlash juda maqsadga muvofiq emas. Shunga ko'ra, radiatsiya darajasining pasayishiga imkon berish va 1-birlik va 2-blokni birgalikda iste'foga chiqarishning mumkin bo'lgan iqtisodiy foydalaridan foydalanish uchun keyingi tozalash ishlari kechiktirildi.[14]

Sog'likka ta'siri va epidemiologiyasi

Asosiy maqola: Uch Mile orolidagi baxtsiz hodisalar sog'liqqa ta'sir qiladi

Voqea sodir bo'lganidan so'ng, tekshiruvlar voqea sodir bo'lgan radioaktivlik miqdoriga qaratildi. Hammasi bo'lib taxminan 2,5 megakuriya (93 PBq) radioaktiv gazlar va taxminan 15 kuryer (560 GBq) yod-131 atrof muhitga chiqarildi.[77] Ga ko'ra Amerika Yadro Jamiyati, radioaktivlik emissiyasining rasmiy ko'rsatkichlaridan foydalangan holda, "Zavoddan o'n mil uzoqlikda yashovchi odamlarga o'rtacha nurlanish dozasi sakkiztani tashkil etdimillirem (0.08 mSv ) va biron bir shaxsga 100 milliremdan (1 mSv) oshmasligi kerak. Sakkiz millirem ko'kragiga teng Rentgen, va 100 millirem AQSh aholisi tomonidan bir yilda olingan o'rtacha radiatsiya fon darajasining uchdan bir qismidir. "[52][78]

Ushbu emissiya ko'rsatkichlariga asoslanib, Manganoning so'zlariga ko'ra, yiqilishning sog'liqqa ta'siri haqida dastlabki ilmiy nashrlar TMI atrofidagi 10 milya (16 km) hududida saraton kasalligidan qo'shimcha o'limni taxmin qilmagan.[53] Zavoddan 10 mil uzoqlikda joylashgan hududlarda kasallik darajasi hech qachon tekshirilmagan.[53] 1980-yillarda mahalliy faollik, sog'liqqa salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi haqidagi latif hisobotlarga asoslanib, ilmiy tadqiqotlar foydalanishga topshirildi. Turli xil epidemiologiya tadqiqotlari natijasida ushbu baxtsiz hodisa uzoq vaqt davomida sog'liqqa ta'sir ko'rsatmaydi.[8][12][79][80]

The Radiatsiya va sog'liqni saqlash loyihasi, epidemiologlar orasida unchalik ishonchga ega bo'lmagan tashkilot,[81] uning a'zosi Jozef Manganoning hisob-kitoblaridan iqtibos keltirgan - u tibbiy jurnallarda 19 ta maqola va kitob yozgan Past darajadagi radiatsiya va immunitet kasalligi - voqea sodir bo'lganidan keyin ikki yil o'tgach, shamol shamollari jamoalarida bolalar o'limining tezlashishi haqida xabar bergan.[53][arxiv tekshiruvi kerak ][82] Leketsiz dalillar, shuningdek, mintaqaning yovvoyi hayotiga ta'sirini qayd etadi.[53] Masalan, bitta yadroga qarshi faolning so'zlariga ko'ra, Xarvi Vasserman, tushish "hududdagi yovvoyi hayvonlar va qishloq xo'jaligi chorva mollari orasida o'lim va kasallik vabosi" ni keltirib chiqardi, shu jumladan mintaqadagi otlar va sigirlarning reproduktiv darajasi keskin pasayib ketdi, bu Pensilvaniya qishloq xo'jaligi departamentining statistik ma'lumotlarida aks ettirilgan. TMI bilan bog'lanish.[83]

Jon Gofman o'zidan foydalangan,peer ko'rib chiqildi 1979 yilgi Uch Mile orolidagi avariyadan 333 dan ortiq saraton yoki leykemiya o'limini taxmin qilish uchun past darajadagi radiatsiya sog'lig'i modeli.[7] Doktor Stiven Vingning taniqli tadqiqot maqolasida 1979-1985 yillarda TMI dan o'n chaqirim uzoqlikda yashovchi odamlar orasida saraton kasalligi sezilarli darajada ko'payganligi aniqlandi;[84] 2009 yilda doktor Ving avariya paytida radiatsiya chiqarilishi, ehtimol, NRC taxminlariga qaraganda "ming baravar ko'p" ekanligini aytdi. Pensilvaniya saraton kasalligini ro'yxatga olish bo'yicha retrospektiv tadqiqotlar TMI janubidagi ba'zi tumanlarda (xususan Daufin okrugida emas) va yuqori xavfli yosh guruhlarida tiroid saratoni bilan kasallanishning ko'payganligini aniqladi. sabab ushbu hodisalar bilan va baxtsiz hodisa bilan bog'laning.[9][10] Pitsburg universiteti Talbott laboratoriyasida TMI populyatsiyasida saraton xastaligi, masalan, erkaklar orasida ahamiyatsiz ortiqcha leykemiya kabi bir necha kichik, asosan statistik ahamiyatga ega bo'lmagan, ko'payganligi aniqlandi.[11] Davom etayotgan TMI epidemiologik tadqiqotlari aniq ma'lumotlarning etishmasligi, shuningdek kasallik tasnifi tufayli dozani baholashdagi muammolarni muhokama qilish bilan birga olib borildi.[85]

Faollik va qonuniy choralar

Shuningdek qarang: Qo'shma Shtatlardagi yadroga qarshi guruhlar ro'yxati § Three Mile Island Alert
Anti-nuclear protest following the Three Mile Island accident, Harrisburg, 1979.

The TMI accident enhanced the credibility of anti-nuclear groups, who had predicted an accident,[86] and triggered protests around the world.[87] (President Carter—who had specialized in nuclear power while in the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari dengiz kuchlari —told his cabinet after visiting the plant that the accident was minor, but reportedly declined to do so in public in order to avoid offending Democrats who opposed nuclear power.[88])

Members of the American public, concerned about the release of radioactive gas from the accident, staged numerous anti-nuclear demonstrations across the country in the following months. The largest demonstration was held in New York City in September 1979 and involved 200,000 people, with speeches given by Jeyn Fonda va Ralf Nader.[89][90][91] The New York rally was held in conjunction with a series of nightly "No Nukes" concerts da berilgan Madison Square Garden from September 19–23 by Xavfsiz energiya uchun birlashgan musiqachilar. In the previous May, an estimated 65,000 people – including California Governor Jerri Braun – attended a march and rally against nuclear power in Washington, D.C.[90]

In 1981, citizens' groups succeeded in a class action suit against TMI, winning $25 million in an out-of-court settlement. Part of this money was used to found the TMI Public Health Fund.[92] In 1983, a federal grand jury indicted Metropolitan Edison on criminal charges for the falsification of safety test results prior to the accident.[93] Under a plea-bargaining agreement, Met Ed pleaded guilty to one count of falsifying records and no contest to six other charges, four of which were dropped, and agreed to pay a $45,000 fine and set up a $1 million account to help with emergency planning in the area surrounding the plant.[94]

According to Eric Epstein, chair of Three Mile Island Alert, the TMI plant operator and its insurers paid at least $82 million in publicly documented compensation to residents for "loss of business revenue, evacuation expenses and health claims".[95] Also according to Harvey Wasserman, hundreds of suddan tashqari hisob-kitoblar have been reached with alleged victims of the qatordan chiqib ketish, with a total of $15 million paid out to parents of children born with birth defects.[96] Biroq, a sud jarayoni alleging that the accident caused detrimental health effects was rejected by Harrisburg AQSh okrug sudi Judge Sylvia Rambo. The appeal of the decision to U.S. Uchinchi tuman apellyatsiya sudi ham muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi.[97]

O'rganilgan saboqlar

The Three Mile Island accident inspired Charlz Perrou "s Normal Accident Theory, in which an accident occurs, resulting from an unanticipated interaction of multiple failures in a complex system. TMI was an example of this type of accident because it was "unexpected, incomprehensible, uncontrollable and unavoidable".[98]

Perrow, Uch Mile orolidagi nosozlik tizimning juda murakkabligi oqibatidir, degan xulosaga keldi. Bunday zamonaviy yuqori xavfli tizimlar, muvaffaqiyatsizlikka moyil bo'lishiga qaramay, ularni boshqargan. Oxir oqibat ular "oddiy baxtsiz hodisa" deb atagan narsalarga duchor bo'lishlari muqarrar edi. Shuning uchun, u radikal ravishda qayta qurish haqida o'ylashimiz yoki agar iloji bo'lmasa, bunday texnologiyadan butunlay voz kechishimiz kerak, deb maslahat berdi u.[99]

"Normal" accidents, or system accidents, are so-called by Perrow because such accidents are inevitable in extremely complex systems. Given the characteristic of the system involved, multiple failures which interact with each other will occur, despite efforts to avoid them.[100] Events which appear trivial initially cascade and multiply unpredictably, creating a much larger catastrophic event.[101]

Oddiy baxtsiz hodisalar contributed key concepts to a set of intellectual developments in the 1980s that revolutionized the conception of safety and risk. It made the case for examining technological failures as the product of highly interacting systems, and highlighted organizational and management factors as the main causes of failures. Technological disasters could no longer be ascribed to isolated equipment malfunction, operator error or acts of God.[99]

Comparison to U.S. Navy operations

Keyingi Uch mil oroli (TMI) power plant's partial core melt on March 28, 1979, President Jimmi Karter commissioned a study, Report of the President's Commission on the Accident at Three Mile Island (1979).[56] Keyinchalik, Admiral Hyman G. Rikover was asked to testify before Congress in the general context of answering the question as to why naval nuclear propulsion (as used in dengiz osti kemalari ) had succeeded in achieving a record of zero reactor-accidents (as defined by the uncontrolled release of fission products to the environment resulting from damage to a reactor core) as opposed to the dramatic one that had just taken place at Three Mile Island. In his testimony, he said:

Over the years, many people have asked me how I run the Dengiz reaktorlari Program, so that they might find some benefit for their own work. I am always chagrined at the tendency of people to expect that I have a simple, easy gimmick that makes my program function. Any successful program functions as an integrated whole of many factors. Trying to select one aspect as the key one will not work. Each element depends on all the others.[102]

Xitoy sindromi

On March 16, 1979, twelve days before the accident, the movie Xitoy sindromi premiered, and was initially met with backlash from the nuclear power industry, claiming it to be "sheer fiction" and a "xarakterga suiqasd of an entire industry."[103]

In the film, television reporter Kimberly Wells (Jeyn Fonda ) and her cameraman Richard Adams (Maykl Duglas ) secretly film a major accident at a nuclear power plant while taping a series on atom energiyasi. The operating crew notices a high-pressure measurement on a gauge and begins to reduce sovutish suyuqligi flow to lower the pressure. This does not appear to work, and they continue reducing the flow until an emergency indicator lamp warns of extremely low pressure. Confused by the conflicting indications, an operator taps the gauge, at which point the needle becomes unstuck and swings over to indicate extremely low pressure. (This is based on a 1970 incident at Dresden Generating Station. ) The reactor is SCRAMed. In the aftermath, the plant supervisor, Jack Godell (Jek Lemmon ) discovers potentially catastrophic safety violations at the plant and with Wells' assistance attempts to raise public awareness of these violations. At one point in the film, an official tells Jane Fonda's character that an explosion at the plant "could render an area the size of the state of Pensilvaniya permanently uninhabitable."[104]

After the release of the film, Fonda began lobbichilik against nuclear power. In an attempt to counter her efforts, Edvard Telller, a yadro fizigi and long-time government science adviser best known for contributing to the Teller-Ulam dizayni breakthrough that made vodorod bombalari possible, personally lobbied in favor of atom energiyasi.[105] Teller suffered a heart attack shortly after the incident and joked that he was the only person whose health was affected.[106]

Hozirgi holat

After the accident, Three Mile Island used only one nuclear generating station, TMI-1, which is on the right. TMI-2, to the left, has not been used since the accident.
TMI-2 as of February 2014. The cooling towers are on the left. The spent fuel pool with containment building of the reactor are on the right.

Currently, Unit 1 — which was not involved in the 1979 accident — is owned and operated by Exelon Nuclear, a subsidiary of Exelon. Unit 1 was sold to AmerGen Energy Corporation, a joint venture between Filadelfiya elektr kompaniyasi (PECO), and Britaniya energetikasi, in 1998. In 2000, PECO merged with Unicom Corporation shakllantirmoq Exelon korporatsiyasi, which acquired British Energy's share of AmerGen in 2003. In 2009, Exelon Nuclear absorbed AmerGen and dissolved the company. Exelon Nuclear operates TMI Unit 1, Klinton elektr stantsiyasi and several other nuclear facilities.[107][108][109] TMI Unit 1 shut down on September 20, 2019.[110]

Unit 1 had its license temporarily suspended following the incident at Unit 2. Although the citizens of the three counties surrounding the site voted by an overwhelming margin to retire Unit 1 permanently in a non-binding resolution in 1982, it was permitted to resume operations in 1985 following a 4-1 vote by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.[111][112] General Public Utilities Corporation, the plant's owner, formed General Public Utilities Nuclear Corporation (GPUN) as a new subsidiary to own and operate the company's nuclear facilities, including Three Mile Island. The plant had previously been operated by Metropolitan Edison Company (Met-Ed), one of GPU's regional utility operating companies. In 1996, General Public Utilities shortened its name to GPU Inc and in 1998, it sold Unit 1 to AmerGen.[113][114]

General Public Utilities was legally obliged to continue to maintain and monitor the site, and therefore retained ownership of Unit 2 when Unit 1 was sold to AmerGen in 1998. GPU Inc. was acquired by Birinchi energiya Corporation in 2001, and subsequently dissolved. FirstEnergy then contracted out the maintenance and administration of Unit 2 to AmerGen. Unit 2 has been administered by Exelon Nuclear since 2003, when Exelon Nuclear's parent company, Exelon, bought out the remaining shares of AmerGen, inheriting FirstEnergy's maintenance contract. Unit 2 continues to be licensed and regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in a condition known as Post Defueling Monitored Storage (PDMS).[115]

The TMI-2 reactor has been permanently shut down with the reactor coolant system drained, the radioactive water decontaminated and evaporated, radioactive waste shipped off-site, reactor fuel and core debris shipped off-site to a Department of Energy facility, and the remainder of the site being monitored. The owner planned to keep the facility in long-term, monitoring storage until the operating license for the TMI-1 plant expired, at which time both plants would be decommissioned.[15] In 2009, the NRC granted a license extension which allowed the TMI-1 reactor to operate until April 19, 2034.[116][117]In 2017 it was announced that operations would cease by 2019 due to financial pressure from cheap natural gas, unless lawmakers stepped in to keep it open.[118] When it became clear the subsidy legislation wouldn't pass within the next month Exelon decided to retire the plant, with TMI-1 shut down by September 30, 2019.[119]

Xronologiya

SanaTadbir
1968–1970Qurilish
1974 yil aprelReactor-1 online
1978 yil fevralReactor-2 online
1979 yil martTMI-2 accident occurred. Containment coolant released into environment.
1979 yil aprelContainment steam vented to the atmosphere in order to stabilize the core.
1980 yil iyulApproximately 1,591 TBq (43,000 kurilar ) of krypton were vented from the reactor building.
1980 yil iyulThe first manned entry into the reactor building took place.
1980 yil noyabrAn Advisory Panel for the Decontamination of TMI-2, composed of citizens, scientists, and state and local officials, held its first meeting in Harrisburg, Pensilvaniya.
1980 yil dekabrU.S. 96th Congressional session passes U.S. legislation establishing a five-year nuclear safety, research, demonstration, and development dastur.
1984 yil iyulThe reactor vessel head (top) was removed.
1985 yil oktyabrDefueling began.
1986 yil iyulThe off-site shipment of reactor core debris began.
1988 yil avgustGPU submitted a request for a proposal to amend the TMI-2 license to a "possession-only" license and to allow the facility to enter long-term monitoring storage.
1990 yil yanvarDefueling was completed.
1990 yil iyulGPU submitted its funding plan for placing $229 million in escrow for radiological decommissioning of the plant.
1991 yil yanvarThe evaporation of accident-generated water began.
1991 yil aprelNRC published a notice of opportunity for a hearing on GPU's request for a license amendment.
1992 yil fevralNRC issued a safety evaluation report and granted the license amendment.
1993 yil avgustThe processing of accident-generated water was completed involving 2.23 million gallons.
1993 yil sentyabrNRC issued a possession-only license.
1993 yil sentyabrThe Advisory Panel for Decontamination of TMI-2 held its last meeting.
1993 yil dekabrPost-Defueling Monitoring Storage began.
2009 yil oktyabrTMI-1 license extended from April 2014 until 2034.
2019 yil mayTMI-1 is announced to be closed in September 2019.
2019 yil sentyabrTMI-1 shutdown at noon on September 30, 2019.

Shuningdek qarang

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